Apple Inc. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Apple Inc. The Apple logo designed by Rob Janoff Type Public (NASDAQ: AAPL) S&P 500 Component Industry Computer hardware Computer software Consumer electronics Digital distribution Predecessor Apple Computer, Inc. (January 9, 2007) Founded Cupertino, California, U.S. (April 1, 1976) Founder(s) Steve Jobs Steve Wozniak Ronald Wayne[1] Headquarters 1 Infinite Loop, Cupertino, California, U.S. Number of locations 300 (August 2010)[2] Area served Worldwide Key people Steve Jobs (Co-founder, Chairman, CEO) Tim Cook (COO) Peter Oppenheimer (CFO) Bob Mansfield (Mac and iPhone Hardware Engineering) Jonathan Ive (Industrial Design)[3] Products Mac (Pro, Mini · iMac · MacBook, Air, Pro · Xserve) iPod (Shuffle, Nano, Classic, Touch) iPhone (Original · 3G · 3GS · 4), iPad, Apple TV, Cinema Display, AirPort, Time Capsule Mac OS X (Server), iLife, iWork, iOS Services Stores (retail, online, App, iTunes, iBooks) MobileMe Revenue $65.23 billion (FY 2010)[4] Profit $14.01 billion (FY 2010)[4] Total assets $75.18 billion (FY 2010)[4] Total equity $47.79 billion (FY 2010)[4] Employees 49,400 (2010)[4] Subsidiaries Braeburn Capital, FileMaker Inc. Website Apple.com Apple Inc. (NASDAQ: AAPL; previously Apple Computer, Inc.) is an American multinational corporation that designs and markets consumer electronics, computer software, and personal computers. The company's best-known hardware products include the Macintosh line of computers, the iPod, the iPhone and the iPad. Apple software includes the Mac OS X operating system; the iTunes media browser; the iLife suite of multimedia and creativity software; the iWork suite of productivity software; Aperture, a professional photography package; Final Cut Studio, a suite of professional audio and film-industry software products; Logic Studio, a suite of music production tools; and iOS, a mobile operating system. As of August 2010, the company operates 301 retail stores[5] in ten countries,[6] and an online store where hardware and software products are sold. Established on April 1, 1976 in Cupertino, California, and incorporated January 3, 1977,[7] the company was previously named Apple Computer, Inc., for its first 30 years, but removed the word "Computer" on January 9, 2007,[8] to reflect the company's ongoing expansion into the consumer electronics market in addition to its traditional focus on personal computers.[9] As of September 25, 2010, Apple had 46,600 full time employees and 2,800 temporary full time employees worldwide[4] and had worldwide annual sales of $65.23 billion.[4] For reasons as various as its philosophy of comprehensive aesthetic design to its distinctive advertising campaigns, Apple has established a unique reputation in the consumer electronics industry. This includes a customer base that is devoted to the company and its brand, particularly in the United States.[10] Fortune magazine named Apple the most admired company in the United States in 2008, and in the world in 2008, 2009, and 2010.[11][12][13] The company has also received widespread criticism for its contractors' labor, environmental, and business practices.[14][15] Contents [hide] 1 History 1.1 1976–1980: The early years 1.2 1981–1985: Lisa and Macintosh 1.3 1986–1993: Rise and fall 1.4 1994–1997: Attempts at reinvention 1.5 1998–2005: Return to profitability 1.6 2005–2007: The Intel transition 1.7 2007–present: Mobile consumer electronics era 2 Products 2.1 Mac and accessories 2.2 iPad 2.3 iPod 2.4 iPhone 2.5 Apple TV 2.6 Software 3 Timeline of Apple products 4 Culture 4.1 Corporate 4.2 Users 5 Corporate affairs 5.1 Headquarters 5.2 Advertising 5.2.1 Logos 5.2.2 Slogans 5.2.3 Commercials 6 Environmental record 7 Labor practices 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links History Main article: History of Apple Inc. 1976–1980: The early years The Apple I, Apple's first product, was sold as an assembled circuit board and lacked basic features such as a keyboard, monitor, and case. The owner of this unit added a keyboard and a wooden case. Apple was established on April 1, 1976 by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne,[1] to sell the Apple I personal computer kit. They were hand-built by Wozniak[16][17] and first shown to the public at the Homebrew Computer Club.[18] The Apple I was sold as a motherboard (with CPU, RAM, and basic textual-video chips)—less than what is today considered a complete personal computer.[19] The Apple I went on sale in July 1976 and was market-priced at $666.66 ($2,548 in 2010 dollars, adjusted for inflation.)[20][21][22][23][24][25] Apple was incorporated January 3, 1977[7] without Wayne, who sold his share of the company back to Jobs and Wozniak for $800. Multi-millionaire Mike Markkula provided essential business expertise and funding of $250,000 during the incorporation of Apple.[26][27] The Apple II was introduced on April 16, 1977 at the first West Coast Computer Faire. It differed from its major rivals, the TRS-80 and Commodore PET, because it came with color graphics and an open architecture. While early models used ordinary cassette tapes as storage devices, they were superseded by the introduction of a 5 1/4 inch floppy disk drive and interface, the Disk II.[28] The Apple II was chosen to be the desktop platform for the first "killer app" of the business world—the VisiCalc spreadsheet program.[29] VisiCalc created a business market for the Apple II, and gave home users an additional reason to buy an Apple II—compatibility with the office.[29] According to Brian Bagnall, Apple exaggerated its sales figures and was a distant third place to Commodore and Tandy until VisiCalc came along.[30][31] By the end of the 1970s, Apple had a staff of computer designers and a production line. The company introduced the ill-fated Apple III in May 1980 in an attempt to compete with IBM and Microsoft in the business and corporate computing market.[32] Jobs and several Apple employees including Jef Raskin visited Xerox PARC in December 1979 to see the Xerox Alto. Xerox granted Apple engineers three days of access to the PARC facilities in return for the option to buy 100,000 shares of Apple at the pre-IPO price of $10 a share.[33] Jobs was immediately convinced that all future computers would use a graphical user interface (GUI), and development of a GUI began for the Apple Lisa.[34] When Apple went public, it generated more capital than any IPO since Ford Motor Company in 1956 and instantly created more millionaires (about 300) than any company in history. 1981–1985: Lisa and Macintosh The Model from Apple's "1984" ad, set in a dystopian future modeled after the George Orwell novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, set the tone for the introduction of the Macintosh. Steve Jobs began working on the Apple Lisa in 1978 but in 1982 he was pushed from the Lisa team due to infighting, and took over Jef Raskin's low-cost-computer project, the Macintosh. A turf war broke out between Lisa's "corporate shirts" and Jobs' "pirates" over which product would ship first and save Apple. Lisa won the race in 1983 and became the first personal computer sold to the public with a GUI, but was a commercial failure due to its high price tag and limited software titles.[35] The first Macintosh, released in 1984 In 1984, Apple next launched the Macintosh. Its debut was announced by the now famous $1.5 million television commercial "1984". It was directed by Ridley Scott, aired during the third quarter of Super Bowl XVIII on January 22, 1984,[36] and is now considered a watershed event for Apple's success[37] and a "masterpiece".[38][39] The Macintosh initially sold well, but follow-up sales were not strong[40] due to its high price and limited range of software titles. The machine's fortunes changed with the introduction of the LaserWriter, the first PostScript laser printer to be offered at a reasonable price point, and PageMaker, an early desktop publishing package. The Mac was particularly powerful in this market due to its advanced graphics capabilities, which were already necessarily built-in to create the intuitive Macintosh GUI. It has been suggested that the combination of these three products was responsible for the creation of the desktop publishing market.[41] In 1985, a power struggle developed between Jobs and CEO John Sculley, who had been hired two years prior.[42] The Apple board of directors instructed Sculley to "contain" Jobs and limit his ability to launch expensive forays into untested products. Rather than submit to Sculley's direction, Jobs attempted to oust him from his leadership role at Apple. Sculley found out that Jobs had been attempting to organize a putsch and called a board meeting at which Apple's board of directors sided with Sculley and removed Jobs from his managerial duties.[40] Jobs resigned from Apple and founded NeXT Inc. the same year.[43] Apple's sustained growth during the early 1980s was in great part due to its leadership in the education sector[citation needed], attributed to an implementation of the LOGO Programming Language by Logo Computer Systems Inc., (LCSI), for the Apple II platform. The success of Apple and LOGO in the education environment provided Apple with a broad base of loyal users around the world. The drive into education was accentuated in California by a momentous agreement concluded between Steve Jobs and Jim Baroux of LCSI, agreeing with the donation of one Apple II and one Apple LOGO software package to each public school in the State. The intention was that if one package was donated to a school, this would result in the purchase of thirty more to fill at least one classroom, and additional purchases would also come from parents supporting the technological familiarity and advancement of their children. This successful strategy and arrangement between Apple and LCSI, was eventually replicated in Texas, establishing a strong and pervasive presence for Apple[citation needed] in all schools throughout California, which ignited the acquisition of Apple IIs in schools right across the country[citation needed]. The conquest of education became critical to Apple's acceptance in the home, as parents supported continued learning experience for children after school. Dominance of the education market around the world sustained Apple through the most critical period from the early to mid ‘80s.[citation needed] 1986–1993: Rise and fall See also: Timeline of Apple II family and Timeline of Macintosh models The Macintosh Portable was Apple's first "portable" Macintosh computer, released in 1989. Having learned several painful lessons after introducing the bulky Macintosh Portable in 1989, Apple introduced the PowerBook in 1991, which established the modern form factor and ergonomic layout of the laptop computer.[44] The Macintosh Portable was designed to be just as powerful as a desktop Macintosh, but weighed 17 pounds with a 12 hour battery life. The same year, Apple introduced System 7, a major upgrade to the operating system, which added color to the interface and introduced new networking capabilities. It remained the architectural basis for Mac OS until 2001. The success of the PowerBook and other products led to increasing revenue.[42] For some time, it appeared that Apple could do no wrong, introducing fresh new products and generating increasing profits in the process. The magazine MacAddict has named the period between 1989 and 1991 as the "first golden age" of the Macintosh. Following the success of the Macintosh LC, Apple introduced the Centris line, a low-end Quadra offering, and the ill-fated Performa line that was sold in several confusing configurations and software bundles to avoid competing with the various consumer outlets such as Sears, Price Club, and Wal-Mart, the primary dealers for these models. The result was disastrous for Apple as consumers did not understand the difference between models. During this time Apple experimented with a number of other failed consumer targeted products including digital cameras, portable CD audio players, speakers, video consoles, and TV appliances. Enormous resources were also invested in the problem-plagued Newton division based on John Sculley's unrealistic market forecasts. Ultimately, all of this proved too-little-too-late for Apple as their market share and stock prices continued to slide. Apple saw the Apple II series as too expensive to produce, while taking away sales from the low end Macintosh.[45] In 1990, Apple released the Macintosh LC with a single expansion slot for the Apple IIe Card to migrate Apple II users to the Macintosh platform.[45] Apple stopped selling the Apple IIe in 1993. Microsoft continued to gain market share with Windows, focusing on delivering software to cheap commodity personal computers while Apple was delivering a richly engineered, but expensive, experience.[46] Apple relied on high profit margins and never developed a clear response. Instead they sued Microsoft for using a graphical user interface similar to the Apple Lisa in Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corporation.[47] The lawsuit dragged on for years before it was finally dismissed. At the same time, a series of major product flops and missed deadlines sullied Apple's reputation, and Sculley was replaced by Michael Spindler.[48] 1994–1997: Attempts at reinvention The Newton was Apple's first foray into the PDA markets, as well as one of the first in the industry. Despite being a financial flop at the time of its release, it helped pave the way for the Palm Pilot and Apple's own iPhone and iPad in the future. By the early 1990s, Apple was developing alternative platforms to the Macintosh, such as the A/UX. Apple had also begun to experiment in providing a Mac-only online portal which they called eWorld, developed in collaboration with America Online and designed as a Mac-friendly alternative to other online services such as CompuServe. The Macintosh platform itself was becoming outdated since it was not built for multitasking, and several important software routines were programmed directly into the hardware. In addition, Apple was facing competition from OS/2 and UNIX vendors like Sun Microsystems. The Macintosh would need to be replaced by a new platform, or reworked to run on more powerful hardware.[49] In 1994, Apple allied with IBM and Motorola in the AIM alliance. The goal was to create a new computing platform (the PowerPC Reference Platform), which would use IBM and Motorola hardware coupled with Apple's software. The AIM alliance hoped that PReP's performance and Apple's software would leave the PC far behind, thus countering Microsoft. The same year, Apple introduced the Power Macintosh, the first of many Apple computers to use IBM's PowerPC processor.[50] In 1996, Michael Spindler was replaced by Gil Amelio as CEO. Gil Amelio made many changes at Apple, including massive layoffs.[51] After multiple failed attempts to improve Mac OS, first with the Taligent project, then later with Copland and Gershwin, Amelio chose to purchase NeXT and its NeXTSTEP operating system, bringing Steve Jobs back to Apple as an advisor.[52] On July 9, 1997, Gil Amelio was ousted by the board of directors after overseeing a three-year record-low stock price and crippling financial losses. Jobs became the interim CEO and began restructuring the company's product line. At the 1997 Macworld Expo, Steve Jobs announced that Apple would join Microsoft to release new versions of Microsoft Office for the Macintosh, and that Microsoft made a $150 million investment in non-voting Apple stock.[53] On November 10, 1997, Apple introduced the Apple Store, tied to a new build-to-order manufacturing strategy.[54][55] 1998–2005: Return to profitability On August 15, 1998, Apple introduced a new all-in-one computer reminiscent of the Macintosh 128K: the iMac. The iMac design team was led by Jonathan Ive, who would later design the iPod and the iPhone.[56][57] The iMac featured modern technology and a unique design. It sold close to 800,000 units in its first five months.[58] Through this period, Apple purchased several companies to create a portfolio of professional and consumer-oriented digital production software. In 1998, Apple announced the purchase of Macromedia's Final Cut software, signaling its expansion into the digital video editing market.[59] The following year, Apple released two video editing products: iMovie for consumers, and Final Cut Pro for professionals, the latter of which has gone on to be a significant video-editing program, with 800,000 registered users in early 2007.[60] In 2002 Apple purchased Nothing Real for their advanced digital compositing application Shake,[61] as well as Emagic for their music productivity application Logic, which led to the development of their consumer-level GarageBand application.[62][63] iPhoto's release the same year completed the iLife suite.[64] Apple retail stores allow potential customers to use floor models without making a purchase. Mac OS X, based on NeXT's OPENSTEP and BSD Unix was released on March 24, 2001, after several years of development. Aimed at consumers and professionals alike, Mac OS X aimed to combine the stability, reliability and security of Unix with the ease of use afforded by an overhauled user interface. To aid users in migrating from Mac OS 9, the new operating system allowed the use of OS 9 applications through Mac OS X's Classic environment.[65] On May 19, 2001, Apple opened the first official Apple Retail Stores in Virginia and California.[66] later on July 9 they bought Spruce Technologies, a DVD authoring company. The same year, Apple introduced the iPod portable digital audio player. The product was phenomenally successful — over 100 million units were sold within six years.[67][68] In 2003, Apple's iTunes Store was introduced, offering online music downloads for $0.99 a song and integration with the iPod. The service quickly became the market leader in online music services, with over 5 billion downloads by June 19, 2008.[69] Since 2001 Apple's design team has progressively abandoned the use of translucent colored plastics first used in the iMac G3. This began with the titanium PowerBook and was followed by the white polycarbonate iBook and the flat-panel iMac.[70][71] 2005–2007: The Intel transition Main article: Apple–Intel transition The MacBook Pro (15.4" widescreen) was Apple's first laptop with an Intel microprocessor. It was announced in January 2006 and is aimed at the professional market. At the Worldwide Developers Conference keynote address on June 6, 2005, Steve Jobs announced that Apple would begin producing Intel-based Mac computers in 2006.[72] On January 10, 2006, the new MacBook Pro and iMac became the first Apple computers to use Intel's Core Duo CPU. By August 7, 2006 Apple had transitioned the entire Mac product line to Intel chips, over 1 year sooner than announced.[72] The Power Mac, iBook, and PowerBook brands were retired during the transition; the Mac Pro, MacBook, and MacBook Pro became their respective successors.[73][74] On April 29, 2009, The Wall Street Journal reported that Apple was building its own team of engineers to design microchips.[75] Apple also introduced Boot Camp to help users install Windows XP or Windows Vista on their Intel Macs alongside Mac OS X.[76] Apple's success during this period was evident in its stock price. Between early 2003 and 2006, the price of Apple's stock increased more than tenfold, from around $6 per share (split-adjusted) to over $80. In January 2006, Apple's market cap surpassed that of Dell.[77] Nine years prior, Dell's CEO Michael Dell said that if he ran Apple he would "shut it down and give the money back to the shareholders."[78] Although Apple's market share in computers has grown, it remains far behind competitors using Microsoft Windows, with only about 8% of desktops and laptops in the U.S.[79] 2007–present: Mobile consumer electronics era Delivering his keynote at the Macworld Expo on January 9, 2007, Jobs announced that Apple Computer, Inc. would from that point on be known as Apple Inc., due to the fact that computers are no longer the singular focus of the company. This change reflects the company's shift of emphasis to mobile electronic devices from personal computers. The event also saw the announcement of the iPhone and the Apple TV.[80] The following day, Apple shares hit $97.80, an all-time high at that point. In May, Apple's share price passed the $100 mark.[81] In an article posted on Apple's website on February 6, 2007, Steve Jobs wrote that Apple would be willing to sell music on the iTunes Store without DRM (which would allow tracks to be played on third-party players) if record labels would agree to drop the technology.[82] On April 2, 2007, Apple and EMI jointly announced the removal of DRM technology from EMI's catalog in the iTunes Store, effective in May.[83] Other record labels followed later that year. The Mac, iPad, and iPhone now form the core of Apple's business. In July of the following year, Apple launched the App Store to sell third-party applications for the iPhone and iPod Touch.[84] Within a month, the store sold 60 million applications and brought in $1 million daily on average, with Jobs speculating that the App Store could become a billion-dollar business for Apple.[85] Three months later, it was announced that Apple had become the third-largest mobile handset supplier in the world due to the popularity of the iPhone.[86] On December 16, 2008, Apple announced that after over 20 years of attending Macworld, 2009 would be the last year Apple would be attending the Macworld Expo, and that Phil Schiller would deliver the 2009 keynote in lieu of the expected Jobs.[87] Almost exactly one month later, on January 14, 2009, an internal Apple memo from Jobs announced that he would be taking a six-month leave of absence, until the end of June 2009, to allow him to better focus on his health and to allow the company to better focus on its products with out having the rampant media speculating about his health.[88] Despite Jobs' absence, Apple recorded its best non-holiday quarter (Q1 FY 2009) during the recession with a revenue of $8.16 billion and a profit of $1.21 billion.[89] Wikinews has related news: Apple unveils iPhone 4, iOS 4 at Worldwide Developers Conference 2010 Apple to give free cases, refunds to iPhone 4 owners Apple unveils new iPods, Apple TV; updates iOS, iTunes Apple unveils new MacBook Air laptops, iLife '11 software suite After years of speculation and multiple rumored "leaks" Apple announced a large screen, tablet-like media device known as the iPad on January 27, 2010. The iPad runs the same touch based operating system that the iPhone uses and many of the same iPhone apps are compatible with the iPad. This gave the iPad a large app catalog on launch even with very little development time before the release. Later that year on April 3, 2010, the iPad was launched in the US and sold more than 300,000 units on that day and reaching 500,000 by the end of the first week.[90] In May 2010, Apple's market cap exceeded that of competitor Microsoft for the first time since 1989.[91] In June 2010, Apple released the fourth generation iPhone, which introduced video calling, multitasking, and a new uninsulated stainless steel design, which acts as the phone's antenna. Because of this antenna implementation, some iPhone 4 users reported a reduction in signal strength when the phone is held in specific ways. Apple has offered buyers a free rubber 'bumper' case until September 30, 2010, as cases has been proven to solve/improve the signal strength issue. In September 2010, Apple refreshed its iPod line of MP3 players, introducing a multi-touch iPod Nano, iPod Touch with FaceTime, and iPod Shuffle with buttons.[92][93][94] In October 2010, Apple shares hit an all-time high, eclipsing $300.[95] Additionally, on October 20, Apple updated their MacBook Air laptop, iLife suite of applications, and unveiled Mac OS X Lion, the latest installment in their Mac OS X operating system.[96] Products See also: Timeline of Apple products and List of products discontinued by Apple Inc. Mac and accessories See also: Timeline of Macintosh models, List of Macintosh models grouped by CPU type, and List of Macintosh models by case type The Mac mini Mac mini, consumer sub-desktop computer and server introduced in January 2005. iMac, consumer all-in-one desktop computer that was first introduced by Apple in 1998. Its popularity helped revive the company's fortunes.[58] Mac Pro, workstation-class desktop computer introduced in August 2006. It replaced the Power Macintosh. MacBook, consumer notebook introduced in 2006. It replaced the iBook. MacBook Air, ultra-thin, ultra-portable notebook, introduced in January 2008. MacBook Pro, professional portable computer alternative to the MacBook, available in 13, 15, and 17-inch variants, introduced in January 2006. It replaced the PowerBook. Xserve, rack mounted, dual or quad core, dual processor 1U server. Apple sells a variety of computer accessories for Mac computers including the AirPort wireless networking products, Time Capsule, Cinema Display, Magic Mouse, Magic Trackpad, Wireless Keyboard, the Apple Battery Charger and the Apple USB Modem. iPad Main article: iPad On January 27, 2010, Apple introduced their much-anticipated media tablet, the iPad running a modified version of iOS. It offers multitouch interaction with multimedia formats including newspapers, magazines, ebooks, textbooks, photos, movies, TV shows videos, music, word processing documents, spreadsheets, video games, and most existing iPhone apps.[97] It also includes a mobile version of Safari for internet browsing, as well as access to the App Store, iTunes Library, iBooks Store, contacts, and notepad. Content is downloadable via Wi-Fi and optional 3G service or synced through the user's computer.[98] AT&T is currently the sole US provider of 3G wireless access for the iPad.[99] iPod Main article: iPod The current iPod family, featuring the iPod Shuffle, iPod Nano, iPod Classic, and iPod Touch On October 23, 2001, Apple introduced the iPod digital music player. It has evolved to include various models targeting the wants of different users. The iPod is the market leader in portable music players by a significant margin, with more than 220 million units shipped as of September 9, 2009.[100] Apple has partnered with Nike to offer the Nike+iPod Sports Kit enabling runners to synchronize and monitor their runs with iTunes and the Nike+ website. Apple currently sells four variants of the iPod. iPod Classic (previously named iPod from 2001 to 2007), portable media player first introduced in 2001, currently available in a 160 GB model. iPod Nano, portable media player first introduced in 2005, currently available in 8 and 16 GB models. The newest generation has a FM radio, a pedometer, and a new multi-touch interface that replaced the traditional iPod click wheel. iPod Shuffle, digital audio player first introduced in 2005, currently available in 2 and 4 GB models. iPod Touch, portable media player that runs iOS, first introduced in September 2007 after the iPhone went on sale. Currently available in 8, 32, and 64 GB models. The latest generation features the Apple A4 processor, a Retina Display, and dual cameras on the front and back. The back camera allows video recording at 720p. iPhone Main article: iPhone The iPhone 4 is the most recent generation of iPhone. At the Macworld Conference & Expo in January 2007, Steve Jobs revealed the long anticipated[101] iPhone, a convergence of an Internet-enabled smartphone and iPod.[102] The original iPhone combined a 2.5G quad band GSM and EDGE cellular phone with features found in hand held devices, running scaled-down versions of Apple's Mac OS X (dubbed iOS, formerly iPhone OS), with various Mac OS X applications such as Safari and Mail. It also includes web-based and Dashboard apps such as Google Maps and Weather. The iPhone features a 3.5-inch (89 mm) touch screen display, 4, 8, or 16 GB of memory, Bluetooth, and Wi-Fi (both "b" and "g").[102] The iPhone first became available on June 29, 2007 for $499 (4 GB) and $599 (8 GB) with an AT&T contract.[103] On February 5, 2008, Apple updated the original iPhone to have 16 GB of memory, in addition to the 8 GB and 4 GB models.[104] On June 9, 2008, at WWDC 2008, Steve Jobs announced that the iPhone 3G would be available on July 11, 2008.[105] This version added support for 3G networking, assisted-GPS navigation, and a price cut to $199 for the 8 GB version, and $299 for the 16 GB version, which was available in both black and white. The new version was visually different from its predecessor in that it eliminated the flat silver back, and large antenna square for a curved glossy black or white back. Following complaints from many people, the headphone jack was changed from a recessed jack to a flush jack to be compatible with more styles of headphones. The software capabilities changed as well, with the release of the new iPhone came the release of Apple's App Store; the store provided applications for download that were compatible with the iPhone. On April 24, 2009, the App Store surpassed one billion downloads.[106] On June 8, 2009, at Apple's annual worldwide developers conference, the iPhone 3GS was announced, providing an incremental update to the device including faster internal components, support for faster 3G speeds, video recording capability, and voice control. On June 7, 2010, at WWDC 2010, the iPhone 4 was announced, which Apple says is its "'biggest leap we've taken" since the original iPhone.[107] The phone includes an all-new design, 960x640 display, Apple's A4 processor used in the iPad, a gyroscope for enhanced gaming, 5MP camera with LED flash, front-facing VGA camera and FaceTime video calling. Shortly after the release of the iPhone 4, it was realized by consumers that the new iPhone had reception issues. This is due to the stainless steel band around the edge of the device, which also serves as the phones cellular signal and Wi-Fi antenna. The current fix for this issue is a "Bumper Case" for the phone distributed for free to all iPhone 4 owners, subject to terms. Apple TV Main article: Apple TV 2010 Apple TV At the 2007 Macworld conference, Jobs demonstrated the Apple TV, (previously known as the iTV),[108] a set-top video device intended to bridge the sale of content from iTunes with high-definition televisions. The device links up to a user's TV and syncs, either via Wi-Fi or a wired network, with one computer's iTunes library and streams from an additional four. The Apple TV originally incorporated a 40 GB hard drive for storage, includes outputs for HDMI and component video, and plays video at a maximum resolution of 720p.[109] On May 31, 2007 a 160 GB drive was released alongside the existing 40 GB model[110] and on January 15, 2008 a software update was released, which allowed media to be purchased directly from the Apple TV.[111] In September 2009, Apple discontinued the original 40 GB Apple TV and now continues to produce and sell the 160 GB Apple TV. On September 1, 2010, alongside the release of the new line of iPod devices for the year, Apple released a completely redesigned Apple TV. The new deivce is 1/4 the size, runs quieter, and replaces the need for a hard drive with media streaming from any iTunes library on the network along with 8 GB of flash memory to cache media downloaded. Apple with the Apple TV has added another device to its portfolio that runs on its A4 processor along with the iPad and the iPhone. The memory included in the device is the half of the iPhone 4 at 256 MB; the same as the iPad, iPhone 3GS, iPod touch 3G, and iPod touch 4G.[112] It has HDMI out as the only video out source. Features include access to the iTunes Store to rent movies and TV shows (purchasing has been discontinued), streaming from internet video sources, including YouTube and Netflix, and media streaming from your iTunes library. Apple also reduced the price of the device to $99. Software See also: List of Macintosh software Apple develops its own operating system to run on Macs, Mac OS X, the latest version being Mac OS X v10.6 Snow Leopard. Apple also independently develops computer software titles for its Mac OS X operating system. Much of the software Apple develops is bundled with its computers. An example of this is the consumer-oriented iLife software package that bundles iDVD, iMovie, iPhoto, iTunes, GarageBand, and iWeb. For presentation, page layout and word processing, iWork is available, which includes Keynote, Pages, and Numbers. iTunes, QuickTime media player, Safari web browser, and Software Update are available as free downloads for both Mac OS X and Windows. Apple also offers a range of professional software titles. Their range of server software includes the operating system Mac OS X Server; Apple Remote Desktop, a remote systems management application; WebObjects, Java EE Web application server; and Xsan, a Storage Area Network file system. For the professional creative market, there is Aperture for professional RAW-format photo processing; Final Cut Studio, a video production suite; Logic, a comprehensive music toolkit and Shake, an advanced effects composition program. Apple also offers online services with MobileMe (formerly .Mac) that bundles personal web pages, email, Groups, iDisk, backup, iSync, and Learning Center online tutorials. MobileMe is a subscription-based internet suite that capitalizes on the ability to store personal data on an online server and thereby keep all web-connected devices in sync.[113] Announced at MacWorld Expo 2009, iWork.com allows iWork users to upload documents for sharing and collaboration. Timeline of Apple products See also: Timeline of Apple Inc. products, Timeline of Apple II family, and Timeline of Macintosh models Products on this timeline indicate introduction dates only and not necessarily discontinued dates, as new products begin on a contiguous product line. Culture Corporate Apple was one of several highly successful companies founded in the 1970s that bucked the traditional notions of what a corporate culture should look like in organizational hierarchy (flat versus tall, casual versus formal attire, etc.). Other highly successful firms with similar cultural aspects from the same period include Southwest Airlines and Microsoft. Originally, the company stood in opposition to staid competitors like IBM by default, thanks to the influence of its founders; Steve Jobs often walked around the office barefoot even after Apple was a Fortune 500 company. By the time of the "1984" TV ad, this trait had become a key way the company attempts to differentiate itself from its competitors.[114] As the company has grown and been led by a series of chief executives, each with his own idea of what Apple should be, some of its original character has arguably been lost, but Apple still has a reputation for fostering individuality and excellence that reliably draws talented people into its employ, especially after Jobs' return. To recognize the best of its employees, Apple created the Apple Fellows program, awarding individuals who made extraordinary technical or leadership contributions to personal computing while at the company. The Apple Fellowship has so far been awarded to a few individuals including Bill Atkinson,[115] Steve Capps,[116] Rod Holt,[115] Alan Kay,[117][118] Guy Kawasaki,[117][119] Al Alcorn,[120] Don Norman,[117] Rich Page,[115] and Steve Wozniak.[115] Numerous employees of Apple have cited that projects without Jobs' involvement often take longer than projects with his involvement.[121] Another presents the image of Jobs "wandering the hall with a flame thrower in hand, asking random people 'do you work on MobileMe?'".[122] Users Apple aficionados wait in line around an Apple retail store in anticipation of a new product. This branch is located on Fifth Avenue in New York City, with a glass cube housing a cylindrical elevator and a spiral staircase that lead into the subterranean store. While this brand loyalty is considered unusual for any product, Apple appears not to have gone out of its way to create it. At one time, Apple evangelists were actively engaged by the company, but this was after the phenomenon was already firmly established. Apple evangelist Guy Kawasaki has called the brand fanaticism "something that was stumbled upon".[123] Apple has, however, supported the continuing existence of a network of Mac User Groups in most major and many minor centers of population where Mac computers are available. Mac users would meet at the European Apple Expo and the San Francisco Macworld Conference & Expo trade shows where Apple traditionally introduced new products each year to the industry and public until Apple pulled out of both events. While the conferences continue, Apple does not have official representation there. Mac developers, in turn, continue gather at the annual Apple Worldwide Developers Conference. Apple Store openings can draw crowds of thousands, with some waiting in line as much as a day before the opening or flying in from other countries for the event.[124] The New York City Fifth Avenue "Cube" store had a line as long as half a mile; a few Mac fans took the opportunity of the setting to propose marriage.[125] The Ginza opening in Tokyo was estimated in the thousands with a line exceeding eight city blocks.[126] John Sculley told The Guardian newspaper in 1997: "People talk about technology, but Apple was a marketing company. It was the marketing company of the decade."[127] Research by NetRatings indicate that the average Apple consumer is usually more affluent and more well-educated than PC consumers. The research indicated that this correlation could stem from the fact that on average Apple Inc. products are more expensive than PC products.[128][129] Corporate affairs See also: List of mergers and acquisitions by Apple, Braeburn Capital, and FileMaker Inc. During the Mac's early history Apple generally refused to adopt prevailing industry standards for hardware, instead creating their own.[130] This trend was largely reversed in the late 1990s beginning with Apple's adoption of the PCI bus in the 7500/8500/9500 Power Macs. Apple has since adopted USB, AGP, HyperTransport, Wi-Fi, and other industry standards in its computers and was in some cases a leader in the adoption of standards such as USB.[131] FireWire is an Apple-originated standard that has seen widespread industry adoption after it was standardized as IEEE 1394.[132] Ever since the first Apple Store opened, Apple has sold third party accessories.[133] This allows, for instance, Nikon and Canon to sell their Mac-compatible digital cameras and camcorders inside the store. Adobe, one of Apple's oldest software partners,[134] also sells its Mac-compatible software, as does Microsoft, who sells Microsoft Office for the Mac. Books from John Wiley & Sons, who publishes the For Dummies series of instructional books, are a notable exception, however. The publisher's line of books were banned from Apple Stores in 2005 because Steve Jobs disagreed with their editorial policy.[135] Headquarters Main article: Infinite Loop (street) Company headquarters on Infinite Loop in Cupertino, California Apple Inc.'s world corporate headquarters are located in the middle of Silicon Valley, at 1 Infinite Loop, Cupertino, California. This Apple campus has six buildings that total 850,000 square feet (79,000 m2) and was built in 1993 by Sobrato Development Cos.[136] In 2006, Apple announced its intention to build a second campus on 50 acres (200,000 m2) assembled from various contiguous plots. The new campus, also in Cupertino, will be about 1 mile (1.6 km) east of the current campus.[137] Advertising Main article: Apple Inc. advertising Further information: Think Different, Get a Mac, and Apple Switch ad campaign Since the introduction of the Macintosh in 1984 with the 1984 Super Bowl commercial to the more modern 'Get a Mac' adverts, Apple has been recognized in the past for its efforts towards effective advertising and marketing for its products, though its advertising has been criticized for the claims of some more recent campaigns, particularly 2005 Power Mac ads[138][139][140] and iPhone ads in Britain. Logos See also: U+F8FF or , seen as the Apple logo in some fonts. The original Apple logo featuring Isaac Newton under the fabled apple tree The rainbow "bitten" logo, used from late 1976 until replaced in 1998 by monochrome themes using the same shape The monochrome logo is still used. An Aqua themed version was used from 2001—2003, and a Glass themed version since 2003. Apple's first logo, designed by Jobs and Wayne, depicts Sir Isaac Newton sitting under an apple tree. Almost immediately, though, this was replaced by Rob Janoff's "rainbow Apple", the now-familiar rainbow-colored silhouette of an apple with a bite taken out of it. Janoff presented Jobs with several different monochromatic themes for the "bitten" logo, and Jobs immediately took a liking to it. While Jobs liked the logo, he insisted it be in color to humanize the company.[141][142] The Apple logo was designed with a bite so that it would be recognized as an apple rather than a cherry. The colored stripes were conceived to make the logo more accessible, and to represent the fact the monitor could reproduce images in color.[143] The logo is often erroneously referred to as a tribute to Alan Turing, with the bite mark a reference to his method of suicide.[144] Both the designer of the logo and the company deny that there is any homage to Turing in the design of the logo.[143][145] In 1998, with the roll-out of the new iMac, Apple discontinued the rainbow theme and began to use monochromatic themes, nearly identical in shape to its previous rainbow incarnation, on various products, packaging and advertising. Slogans Main article: List of Apple Inc. slogans Apple's first slogan, "Byte into an Apple", was coined in the late 1970s.[146] From 1997–2002, Apple used the slogan Think Different in advertising campaigns. The slogan had a lasting impact on their image and revived their popularity with the media and customers, and the grammar caused a bit of discussion (i.e. "think" is a verb, which is modified by adverbs; therefore the adverb "differently" should be used, not the adjective "different"[147]). Although the slogan has been retired, it is still closely associated with Apple.[148] Apple also has slogans for specific product lines — for example, "iThink, therefore iMac" was used in 1998 to promote the iMac,[149] and "Say hello to iPhone" has been used in iPhone advertisements.[150] "Hello" was also used to introduce the original Macintosh, Newton, iMac ("hello (again)"), and iPod.[151] Commercials See also: 1984 (advertisement), Lemmings (advertisement), iPod advertising, and music used by Apple Inc. Apple's product commercials gained fame for launching musicians into stardom as a result of their eye-popping graphics and catchy tunes.[152] First, the company popularized Canadian singer Feist's "1234" song in its ad campaign.[152] Later, Apple used the song "New Soul" by French-Israeli singer-songwriter Yael Naim to promote the MacBook Air.[152] The debut single shot to the top of the charts and sold hundreds of thousands of copies in a span of weeks.[152] Environmental record Greenpeace, an environmental organization, has confronted Apple on various environmental issues, including promoting a global end-of-life take-back plan, non-recyclable hardware components, and toxins within the iPhone hardware.[153][154] Since 2003 they have campaigned against Apple regarding their chemical policies, in particular the inclusion of PVC and BFRs in their products, both of which have serious negative health effects.[153] At the 2007 Macworld Expo, Greenpeace presented a critique of Apple. Rick Hind, the legislative director of Greenpeace's toxics campaign, said, "(The company) is getting greener, but not green enough." Hind commented further, "The Macbook Air has less toxic PVC plastic and less toxic BFRs, but it could have zero and that would make Apple an eco-leader."[155] On May 2, 2007, Steve Jobs released a report announcing plans to eliminate PVC and BFRs by the end of 2008.[156][157] Apple has eliminated toxic vinyl plastic (PVC) and brominated flame retardants (BFRs) across its product range.[158] It became the first laptop maker to remove PVC and BFRs.[159] In Greenpeace’s Guide to Greener Electronics that scores electronics manufacturers on their policies regarding toxic chemicals, recycling and climate change, Apple ranked 5th out of 18 leading electronic makers in May 2010 with a score of 4.9/ 10.[160] Greenpeace criticises for example that Apple has yet to make a statement on the need for mandatory greenhouse gas emissions reductions.[161] In the first edition, released in August 2006, Apple scored 2.7/10.[162] In May 2008, Climate Counts, a nonprofit organization dedicated to directing consumers toward the greenest companies, gave Apple 11 points out of a possible 100, which placed the company last among electronics companies. Climate Counts also labeled Apple with a "stuck icon," and the environmental group added that Apple was "a choice to avoid for the climate conscious consumer."[15] By 2010, Apple had earned a score of 52 / 100, which puts Apple in their top category "Striding."[163] The Environmental Protection Agency rates Apple highest amongst producers of notebook computers, and fairly well compared to producers of desktop computers and LCD displays.[164][165] In June 2007, Apple upgraded the MacBook Pro, replacing cold cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) backlit LCD displays with mercury-free LED backlit LCD displays and arsenic-free glass,[166] and has since done this for all notebooks. Apple has also phased out BFRs and PVCs from various internal components.[156][167][168] Apple also offers detailed information about the emissions, materials, and electrical usage of each product.[169] In June 2009, Apple's iPhone 3GS was free of PVC, arsenic, BFR's and had an efficient power adapter.[166] In October 2009, Apple upgraded the iMac and MacBook, replacing the cold cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) backlit LCD displays with mercury-free LED backlit LCD displays and arsenic-free glass.[170] This means all Apple computers have mercury free LED backlit displays, arsenic-free glass and are without PVC cables. All Apple computers also have EPEAT Gold status.[166] Labor practices Further information: Apple labor practices In 2006, the Mail on Sunday reported that sweatshop conditions existed in factories in China, where the contract manufacturers, Foxconn and Inventec, operate the factories that produce the iPod.[171] The article stated that one complex of factories that assemble the iPod, among other items, for instance, had over 200,000 workers that lived and worked in the factory, with workers regularly doing more than 60 hours of labor per week. The article also reported that workers made around $100 per month were required to live on the premises and pay for rent and food from the company, which generally amounted to a little over half of workers' earnings.[14][172][173][174] Immediately after the allegations, Apple launched an investigation and worked with their manufacturers to ensure that conditions were acceptable to Apple.[175] In 2007, Apple started yearly audits of all its suppliers regarding worker's rights, slowly raising standards and pruning suppliers that did not comply. Yearly progress reports have been published since 2008.[176] In 2010, workers in China planned to sue iPhone contractors over poisoning by a cleaner used to clean LCD screens. One worker claimed that they were not informed of possible occupational illnesses.[177] See also Book:Apple Inc. Books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print. Apple Campus Music used by Apple Inc. 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Archived from the original on June 2, 2008. Retrieved August 18, 2008. "Apple II history". Retrieved August 18, 2008. "Apple III history". Retrieved August 5, 2006. Further reading Gil Amelio, William L. Simon (1999), On the Firing Line: My 500 Days at Apple ISBN 978-0-88730-919-9 Jim Carlton, Apple: The Inside Story of Intrigue, Egomania and Business Blunders ISBN 978-0-88730-965-6 Alan Deutschman (2000), The Second Coming of Steve Jobs, Broadway, ISBN 978-0-7679-0432-2 Andy Hertzfeld (2004), Revolution in the Valley, O'Reilly Books ISBN 978-0-596-00719-5 Paul Kunkel, AppleDesign: The Work of the Apple Industrial Design Group ISBN 978-1-888001-25-9 Steven Levy (1994), Insanely Great: The Life and Times of Macintosh, the Computer That Changed Everything ISBN 978-0-14-029177-3 Owen Linzmayer (2004), Apple Confidential 2.0, No Starch Press ISBN 978-1-59327-010-0 Michael S. Malone (1999), Infinite Loop ISBN 978-0-385-48684-2 Frank Rose (1990), West of Eden: The End of Innocence at Apple Computer, Penguin Books ISBN 978-0-14-009372-8 John Sculley, John A. Byrne (1987) Odyssey: Pepsi to Apple, HarperCollins, ISBN 978-0-06-015780-7 Steve Wozniak, Gina Smith (2006), iWoz: From Computer Geek to Cult Icon: How I Invented the Personal Computer, Co-Founded Apple, and Had Fun Doing It, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-06143-7 Jeffrey S. Young (1988). Steve Jobs, The Journey is the Reward, Lynx Books, ISBN 978-1-55802-378-9 Jeffrey S. Young, William L. Simon (2005), iCon Steve Jobs: The Greatest Second Act in the History of Business, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-471-72083-6 Multinational corporation From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. It is missing citations or footnotes. Please help improve it by adding inline citations. Tagged since July 2010. Its neutrality is disputed. Tagged since May 2010. It reads like a personal reflection or essay. Tagged since March 2009. A multinational corporation (MNC), also called a transnational corporation (TNC), or multinational enterprise (MNE),[1] is a corporation or an enterprise that manages production or delivers services in more than one country. It can also be referred to as an international corporation. The International Labour Organization (ILO) has defined[citation needed] an MNC as a corporation that has its management headquarters in one country, known as the home country, and operates in several other countries, known as host countries. The Dutch East India Company was the first multinational corporation in the world and the first company to issue stock.[2] It was also arguably the world's first megacorporation, possessing quasi-governmental powers, including the ability to wage war, negotiate treaties, coin money, and establish colonies.[3] The first modern multinational corporation is generally thought to be the East India Company.[4] Many corporations have offices, branches or manufacturing plants in different countries from where their original and main headquarters is located. Some multinational corporations are very big, with budgets that exceed some nations' GDPs. Multinational corporations can have a powerful influence in local economies, and even the world economy, and play an important role in international relations and globalization. Contents [hide] 1 Market imperfections 2 International power 2.1 Tax competition 2.2 Market withdrawal 2.3 Lobbying 2.4 Patents 2.5 Government power 3 Micro-multinationals 4 Criticism of multinationals 5 See also 6 References 7 External links [edit]Market imperfections It may seem strange that a corporation can decide to do business in a different country, where it does not know the laws, local customs or business practices.[1] Why is it not more efficient to combine assets of value overseas with local factors of production at lower costs by renting or selling them to local investors?[1] One reason is that the use of the market for coordinating the behaviour of agents located in different countries is less efficient than coordinating them by a multinational enterprise as an institution.[1] The additional costs caused by the entrance in foreign markets are of less interest for the local enterprise.[1] According to Hymer, Kindleberger and Caves, the existence of MNEs is reasoned by structural market imperfections for final products.[5] In Hymer's example, there are considered two firms as monopolists in their own market and isolated from competition by transportation costs and other tariff and non-tariff barriers. If these costs decrease, both are forced to competition; which will reduce their profits.[5] The firms can maximize their joint income by a merger or acquisition, which will lower the competition in the shared market.[5] Due to the transformation of two separated companies into one MNE the pecuniary externalities are going to be internalized.[5] However, this doesn't mean that there is an improvement for the society.[5] This could also be the case if there are few substitutes or limited licenses in a foreign market.[6] The consolidation is often established by acquisition, merger or the vertical integration of the potential licensee into overseas manufacturing.[6] This makes it easy for the MNE to enforce price discrimination schemes in various countries.[6] Therefore Hymer considered the emergence of multinational firms as "an (negative) instrument for restraining competition between firms of different nations".[7] Market imperfections had been considered by Hymer as structural and caused by the deviations from perfect competition in the final product markets.[8] Further reasons are originated from the control of proprietary technology and distribution systems, scale economies, privileged access to inputs and product differentiation.[8] In the absence of these factors, market are fully efficient.[1] The transaction costs theories of MNEs had been developed simultaneously and independently by McManus (1972), Buckley & Casson (1976) Brown (1976) and Hennart (1977, 1982).[1] All these authors claimed that market imperfections are inherent conditions in markets and MNEs are institutions that try to bypass these imperfections.[1] The imperfections in markets are natural as the neoclassical assumptions like full knowledge and enforcement don't exist in real markets.[9] [edit]International power [edit]Tax competition Multinational corporations have played an important role in globalization. Countries and sometimes subnational regions must compete against one another for the establishment of MNC facilities, and the subsequent tax revenue, employment, and economic activity. To compete, countries and regional political districts sometimes offer incentives to MNCs such as tax breaks, pledges of governmental assistance or improved infrastructure, or lax environmental and labor standards enforcement. This process of becoming more attractive to foreign investment can be characterized as a race to the bottom, a push towards greater autonomy for corporate bodies, or both. However, some scholars for instance the Columbia economist Jagdish Bhagwati, have argued that multinationals are engaged in a 'race to the top.' While multinationals certainly regard a low tax burden or low labor costs as an element of comparative advantage, there is no evidence to suggest that MNCs deliberately avail themselves of lax environmental regulation or poor labour standards. As Bhagwati has pointed out, MNC profits are tied to operational efficiency, which includes a high degree of standardisation. Thus, MNCs are likely to tailor production processes in all of their operations in conformity to those jurisdictions where they operate (which will almost always include one or more of the US, Japan or EU) that has the most rigorous standards. As for labor costs, while MNCs clearly pay workers in, e.g. Vietnam, much less than they would in the US (though it is worth noting that higher American productivity—linked to technology—means that any comparison is tricky, since in America the same company would probably hire far fewer people and automate whatever process they performed in Vietnam with manual labour), it is also the case that they tend to pay a premium of between 10% and 100% on local labor rates.[10] Finally, depending on the nature of the MNC, investment in any country reflects a desire for a long-term return. Costs associated with establishing plant, training workers, etc., can be very high; once established in a jurisdiction, therefore, many MNCs are quite vulnerable to predatory practices such as, e.g., expropriation, sudden contract renegotiation, the arbitrary withdrawal or compulsory purchase of unnecessary 'licenses,' etc. Thus, both the negotiating power of MNCs and the supposed 'race to the bottom' may be overstated, while the substantial benefits that MNCs bring (tax revenues aside) are often understated [edit]Market withdrawal Because of their size, multinationals can have a significant impact on government policy, primarily through the threat of market withdrawal.[11] For example, in an effort to reduce health care costs, some countries have tried to force pharmaceutical companies to license their patented drugs to local competitors for a very low fee, thereby artificially lowering the price. When faced with that threat, multinational pharmaceutical firms have simply withdrawn from the market, which often leads to limited availability of advanced drugs. In these cases, governments have been forced to back down from their efforts. Similar corporate and government confrontations have occurred when governments tried to force MNCs to make their intellectual property public in an effort to gain technology for local entrepreneurs. When companies are faced with the option of losing a core competitive technological advantage or withdrawing from a national market, they may choose the latter. This withdrawal often causes governments to change policy. Countries that have been the most successful in this type of confrontation with multinational corporations are large countries such as United States and Brazil[citation needed], which have viable indigenous market competitors. [edit]Lobbying Multinational corporate lobbying is directed at a range of business concerns, from tariff structures to environmental regulations. There is no unified multinational perspective on any of these issues. Companies that have invested heavily in pollution control mechanisms may lobby for very tough environmental standards in an effort to force non-compliant competitors into a weaker position. Corporations lobby tariffs to restrict competition of foreign industries. For every tariff category that one multinational wants to have reduced, there is another multinational that wants the tariff raised. Even within the U.S. auto industry, the fraction of a company's imported components will vary, so some firms favor tighter import restrictions, while others favor looser ones. Says Ely Oliveira, Manager Director of the MCT/IR: This is very serious and is very hard and takes a lot of work for the owner.pk Multinational corporations such as Wal-mart and McDonald's benefit from government zoning laws, to create barriers to entry. Many industries such as General Electric and Boeing lobby the government to receive subsidies to preserve their monopoly.[12] [edit]Patents Many multinational corporations hold patents to prevent competitors from arising. For example, Adidas holds patents on shoe designs, Siemens A.G. holds many patents on equipment and infrastructure and Microsoft benefits from software patents.[13] The pharmaceutical companies lobby international agreements to enforce patent laws on others. [edit]Government power In addition to efforts by multinational corporations to affect governments, there is much government action intended to affect corporate behavior. The threat of nationalization (forcing a company to sell its local assets to the government or to other local nationals) or changes in local business laws and regulations can limit a multinational's power. These issues become of increasing importance because of the emergence of MNCs in developing countries.[14] [edit]Micro-multinationals Enabled by Internet based communication tools, a new breed of multinational companies is growing in numbers.(Copeland, Michael V. (2006-06-29). "How startups go global". CNN. Retrieved 2010-05-13.) These multinationals start operating in different countries from the very early stages. These companies are being called micro-multinationals. (Varian, Hal R. (2005-08-25). "Technology Levels the Business Playing Field". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-05-13.) What differentiates micro-multinationals from the large MNCs is the fact that they are small businesses. Some of these micro-multinationals, particularly software development companies, have been hiring employees in multiple countries from the beginning of the Internet era. But more and more micro-multinationals are actively starting to market their products and services in various countries. Internet tools like Google, Yahoo, MSN, Ebay and Amazon make it easier for the micro-multinationals to reach potential customers in other countries. Service sector micro-multinationals, like Facebook, Alibaba etc. started as dispersed virtual businesses with employees, clients and resources located in various countries. Their rapid growth is a direct result of being able to use the internet, cheaper telephony and lower traveling costs to create unique business opportunities. Low cost SaaS (Software As A Service) suites make it easier for these companies to operate without a physical office. Hal Varian, Chief Economist at Google and a professor of information economics at U.C. Berkeley, said in April 2010, "Immigration today, thanks to the Web, means something very different than it used to mean. There's no longer a brain drain but brain circulation. People now doing startups understand what opportunities are available to them around the world and work to harness it from a distance rather than move people from one place to another." [edit]Criticism of multinationals Main article: Anti-corporate activism Anti-corporate activism in New York The rapid rise of multinational corporations has been a topic of concern among intellectuals, activists and laypersons who have seen it as a threat of such basic civil rights as privacy. They have pointed out that multinationals create false needs in consumers and have had a long history of interference in the policies of sovereign nation states. Evidence supporting this belief includes invasive advertising (such as billboards, television ads, adware, spam, telemarketing, child-targeted advertising, guerrilla marketing), massive corporate campaign contributions in democratic elections, and endless global news stories about corporate corruption (Martha Stewart and Enron, for example). Anti-corporate protesters suggest that corporations answer only to shareholders, giving human rights and other issues almost no consideration.[15] Films and books critical of multinationals include Surplus: Terrorized into Being Consumers, The Corporation, The Shock Doctrine, Downsize This and others. [edit]See also [edit]References ^ a b c d e f g h Pitelis, Christos; Roger Sugden (2000). The nature of the transnational firm. Routledge. p. 72. ISBN 0415167876. ^ Mondo Visione web site: Chambers, Clem. "Who needs stock exchanges?" Exchanges Handbook. -- retrieved 1 February 2008. ^ Ames, Glenn J. (2008). The Globe Encompassed: The Age of European Discovery, 1500-1700. pp. 102–103. ^ The Register of Letters &c. of the Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies, 1600–1619. On page 3, a letter written by Elizabeth I on January 23, 1601 ("Witnes or selfe at Westminster the xxiiijth of Ianuarie in the xliijth yeare of or Reigne.") states, "Haue been pleased to giue lysence vnto or said Subjects to proceed in the said voiadgs, & for the better inabling them to establish a trade into & from the said East Indies Haue by or tres Pattents vnder or great seale of England beareing date at Westminster the last daie of december last past incorporated or said Subjecte by the name of the Gournor & Companie of the merchaunts of London trading into the East Indies, & in the same tres Pattents haue geven them the sole trade of theast Indies for the terme of XVteen yeares ..." ^ a b c d e Pitelis, Christos; Roger Sugden (2000). The nature of the transnational firm. Hymer (1960, published in 1976), Kindleberger (1969) & Caves (1971). Routledge. p. 74. ISBN 0415167876. ^ a b c Pitelis, Christos; Roger Sugden (2000). The nature of the transnational firm. Hymer, 1976: 49–50. Routledge. p. 74. ISBN 0415167876. ^ Pitelis, Christos; Roger Sugden (2000). The nature of the transnational firm. Hymer, 1970: 433. Routledge. p. 74. ISBN 0415167876. ^ a b Pitelis, Christos; Roger Sugden (2000). The nature of the transnational firm. Bain, 1956. Routledge. p. 74. ISBN 0415167876. ^ Pitelis, Christos; Roger Sugden (2000). The nature of the transnational firm. Dunning & Rugman (1985), Teece (1981). Routledge. p. 74. ISBN 0415167876. ^ Jagdish Bhagwati, In Defense Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004, esp. 122–195. ^ Barnett, Richard, 1975: Global Reach: The Power of the Multinational Corporations. ^ HOLMAN W. JENKINS (2008-07-02). "What Is GM Thinking?". Business World. ^ Kevin Carson, Tucker‘s Big Four: Patents., A Mutualist FAQ ^ Aggarwal, Raj and J.K. Weekly, "Western Firms Face Challenge of Third World Multinationals." Modern Asia (October 1982): 51–52. (with J. K. Weekly). (How 1,000 new multinationals in the developing world are pressuring US and European trading giants) ^ Marc Abeles, 'Globalization, Power, and Survival: an Anthropological Perspective', pg 484–486. Anthropological Quarterly Vol.79, No. 3. Institute for Ethnographic Research, 2006 Consumer electronics From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2010) A typical consumer electronics device, a camcorder. Consumer electronics include electronic equipment intended for everyday use. Consumer electronics are most often used in entertainment, communications and office productivity. Radio broadcasting in the earl 20th century brought the first major consumer product, the broadcast receiver. Later products include personal computers, telephones, MP3 players, audio equipment, televisions, calculators, GPS automotive electronics, digital cameras and players and recorders using video media such as DVDs, VCRs or camcorders. At the turn of the 21st century, the global consumer electronics industry is mainly dominated by Japanese, South Korean and American companies. Increasingly, these products have become based on digital technologies, and have largely merged with the computer industry in what is increasingly referred to as the consumerization of information technology. The CEA (Consumer Electronics Association) estimates 2007 US Consumer Electronics sales at 150 billion dollars.[1] Consumer electronics are manufactured throughout the world, although there is a particularly high concentration of research and development activity in Japan and South Korea. The latest consumer electronics are previewed yearly at the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, Nevada, at which many industry pioneers speak. Contents [hide] 1 Trends 1.1 Ever-falling prices 1.2 Product convergence 1.3 Connectivity 2 Environmental impact 3 See also 4 References 5 External links [edit]Trends [edit]Ever-falling prices One overriding characteristic of all consumer electronic products is the trend of ever-falling prices. This is driven by gains in manufacturing efficiency and automation, lower labor costs as manufacturing has moved to lower-wage countries, and improvements in semiconductor design. Semiconductor components benefit from Moore's Law, an observed principle which states that, for a given price, semiconductor functionality doubles every two years. [edit]Product convergence While consumer electronics continues in its trend of convergence, combining elements of many consumer electronic items, the consumer faces different decisions when purchasing their items. There is an ever increasing need to keep the product information updated and most comparable, for the consumer to be able to make an informed buying decision. The variables are becoming more about 'style and price' rather than 'specification and performance'. This convergence of technologies promises a shrinking of choice of retailer to the consumer and the rise of manufacturer status within the home. There is a gradual shift towards e-commerce web-storefronts. [edit]Connectivity A recent trend in many types of consumer electronics is connectivity. It's usual for many products to include Internet connectivity using technologies such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth or Ethernet. Many products not traditionally associated with computer use (such as TVs or Hi-Fi equipment) now provide options to connect to the Internet or to a computer using a home network to provide access to digital content. The desire to connect CE products capable of displaying High definition (HD) content has lead the industry to develop a number of technologies, such as WirelessHD or ITU-T G.hn, which are optimized for distribution of HD content between CE devices in a home. [edit]Environmental impact Many consumer electronics have planned obsolescence resulting in the generation of e-waste. It is estimated that during 2003 the US alone generated over 2.8 million tons of electronic waste. Standby power used by consumer electronics and appliance while they are turned off accounts for 5 to 10% of household energy consumption, adding an estimated $3 billion to annual energy costs in the USA. "In the average home, 75% of the electricity used to power home electronics is consumed while the products are turned off."[2] Computer software From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "Software" redirects here. For other uses, see Software (disambiguation). Computer software, or just software, is the collection of computer programs and related data that provide the instructions telling a computer what to do. We can also say software refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer for some purposes. Program software performs the function of the program it implements, either by directly providing instructions to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software. The term was coined to contrast to the old term hardware (meaning physical devices). In contrast to hardware, software is intangible, meaning it "cannot be touched".[1] Software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, meaning application software only. Sometimes the term includes data that has not traditionally been associated with computers, such as film, tapes, and records.[2] Examples of computer software include: Application software includes end-user applications of computers such as word processors or video games, and ERP software for groups of users. Middleware controls and co-ordinates distributed systems. Programming languages define the syntax and semantics of computer programs. For example, many mature banking applications were written in the COBOL language, originally invented in 1959. Newer applications are often written in more modern programming languages. System software includes operating systems, which govern computing resources. Today[when?] large[quantify] applications running on remote machines such as Websites are considered[by whom?] to be system software, because[citation needed] the end-user interface is generally through a graphical user interface, such as a web browser. Testware is software for testing hardware or a software package. Firmware is low-level software often stored on electrically programmable memory devices. Firmware is given its name because it is treated like hardware and run ("executed") by other software programs. Shrinkware is the older name given to consumer-bought software, because it was often sold in retail stores in a shrink-wrapped box. Device drivers control parts of computers such as disk drives, printers, CD drives, or computer monitors. Programming tools help conduct computing tasks in any category listed above. For programmers, these could be tools for debugging or reverse engineering older legacy systems in order to check source code compatibility. Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Overview 3 Types of software 3.1 System software 3.2 Programming software 3.3 Application software 4 Software topics 4.1 Architecture 4.2 Documentation 4.3 Library 4.4 Standard 4.5 Execution 4.6 Quality and reliability 4.7 License 4.8 Patents 5 Design and implementation 6 Industry and organizations 7 References 8 External links [edit]History For the history prior to 1946, see History of computing hardware. The first theory about software was proposed by Alan Turing in his 1935 essay Computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem (Decision problem).[3] The term "software" was first used in print by John W. Tukey in 1958[citation needed]. Colloquially, the term is often used to mean application software. In computer science and software engineering, software is all information processed by computer system, programs and data.[4] The academic fields studying software are computer science and software engineering. The history of computer software is most often traced back to the first software bug in 1946[citation needed]. As more and more programs enter the realm of firmware, and the hardware itself becomes smaller, cheaper and faster due to Moore's law, elements of computing first considered to be software, join the ranks of hardware. Most hardware companies today have more software programmers on the payroll than hardware designers[citation needed], since software tools have automated many tasks of Printed circuit board engineers. Just like the Auto industry, the Software industry has grown from a few visionaries operating out of their garage with prototypes. Steve Jobs and Bill Gates were the Henry Ford and Louis Chevrolet of their times[citation needed], who capitalized on ideas already commonly known before they started in the business. In the case of Software development, this moment is generally agreed to be the publication in the 1980s of the specifications for the IBM Personal Computer published by IBM employee Philip Don Estridge. Today his move would be seen as a type of crowd-sourcing. Until that time, software was bundled with the hardware by Original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) such as Data General, Digital Equipment and IBM[citation needed]. When a customer bought a minicomputer, at that time the smallest computer on the market, the computer did not come with Pre-installed software, but needed to be installed by engineers employed by the OEM. Computer hardware companies not only bundled their software, they also placed demands on the location of the hardware in a refrigerated space called a computer room. Most companies had their software on the books for 0 dollars, unable to claim it as an asset (this is similar to financing of popular music in those days). When Data General introduced the Data General Nova, a company called Digidyne wanted to use its RDOS operating system on its own hardware clone. Data General refused to license their software (which was hard to do, since it was on the books as a free asset), and claimed their "bundling rights". The Supreme Court set a precedent called Digidyne v. Data General in 1985. The Supreme Court let a 9th circuit decision stand, and Data General was eventually forced into licensing the Operating System software because it was ruled that restricting the license to only DG hardware was an illegal tying arrangement.[5] Soon after, IBM 'published' its DOS source for free, and Microsoft was born. Unable to sustain the loss from lawyer's fees, Data General ended up being taken over by EMC Corporation. The Supreme Court decision made it possible to value software, and also purchase Software patents. The move by IBM was almost a protest at the time. Few in the industry believed that anyone would profit from it other than IBM (through free publicity). Microsoft and Apple were able to thus cash in on 'soft' products. It is hard to imagine today that people once felt that software was worthless without a machine. There are many successful companies today that sell only software products, though there are still many common software licensing problems due to the complexity of designs and poor documentation, leading to patent trolls. With open software specifications and the possibility of software licensing, new opportunities arose for software tools that then became the de facto standard, such as DOS for operating systems, but also various proprietary word processing and spreadsheet programs. In a similar growth pattern, proprietary development methods became standard Software development methodology. [edit]Overview A layer structure showing where operating system is located on generally used software systems on desktops Software includes all the various forms and roles that digitally stored data may have and play in a computer (or similar system), regardless of whether the data is used as code for a CPU, or other interpreter, or whether it represents other kinds of information. Software thus encompasses a wide array of products that may be developed using different techniques such as ordinary programming languages, scripting languages, microcode, or an FPGA configuration. The types of software include web pages developed in languages and frameworks like HTML, PHP, Perl, JSP, ASP.NET, XML, and desktop applications like OpenOffice.org, Microsoft Word developed in languages like C, C++, Java, C#, or Smalltalk. Application software usually runs on an underlying software operating systems such as Linux or Microsoft Windows. Software (or firmware) is also used in video games and for the configurable parts of the logic systems of automobiles, televisions, and other consumer electronics. Computer software is so called to distinguish it from computer hardware, which encompasses the physical interconnections and devices required to store and execute (or run) the software. At the lowest level, executable code consists of machine language instructions specific to an individual processor. A machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions that change the state of the computer from its preceding state. Programs are an ordered sequence of instructions for changing the state of the computer in a particular sequence. It is usually written in high-level programming languages that are easier and more efficient for humans to use (closer to natural language) than machine language. High-level languages are compiled or interpreted into machine language object code. Software may also be written in an assembly language, essentially, a mnemonic representation of a machine language using a natural language alphabet. Assembly language must be assembled into object code via an assembler. [edit]Types of software This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2010) Practical computer systems divide software systems into three major classes[citation needed]: system software, programming software and application software, although the distinction is arbitrary, and often blurred. [edit]System software System software provides the basic function for computer usage,which can be divided into operating system and support system.Operating system is the most basic software.System software helps run the computer hardware and computer system. It includes a combination of the following: device drivers operating systems servers utilities window systems System software is responsible for managing variety of independent hardwares,so that they can work together harmoniously.For the system software, computer users and other software regard the computer as a whole and need not give concern on how every hardware works.The purpose of systems software is to unburden the applications programmer from the often complex details of the particular computer being used, including such accessories as communications devices, printers, device readers, displays and keyboards, and also to partition the computer's resources such as memory and processor time in a safe and stable manner. Examples are - Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Mac OS X. [edit]Programming software Programming software usually provides tools to assist a programmer in writing computer programs, and software using different programming languages in a more convenient way. The tools include: compilers debuggers interpreters linkers text editors An Integrated development environment (IDE) is a single application that attempts to manage all these functions. [edit]Application software System software does not aim at a certain application fields.In contrast,different application software offers different function based on users and the area it served.Application software is developed for some certain purpose,which either can be a certain program or a collection of some programmes,such as a graphic browser or the data base management system. Application software allows end users to accomplish one or more specific (not directly computer development related) tasks. Typical applications include: industrial automation business software video games quantum chemistry and solid state physics software telecommunications (i.e., the Internet and everything that flows on it) databases educational software Mathematical software medical software molecular modeling software image editing spreadsheet simulation software Word processing Decision making software Application software exists for and has impacted a wide variety of topics. [edit]Software topics [edit]Architecture See also: Software architecture Users often see things differently than programmers. People who use modern general purpose computers (as opposed to embedded systems, analog computers and supercomputers) usually see three layers of software performing a variety of tasks: platform, application, and user software. Platform software: Platform includes the firmware, device drivers, an operating system, and typically a graphical user interface which, in total, allow a user to interact with the computer and its peripherals (associated equipment). Platform software often comes bundled with the computer. On a PC you will usually have the ability to change the platform software. Application software: Application software or Applications are what most people think of when they think of software. Typical examples include office suites and video games. Application software is often purchased separately from computer hardware. Sometimes applications are bundled with the computer, but that does not change the fact that they run as independent applications. Applications are usually independent programs from the operating system, though they are often tailored for specific platforms. Most users think of compilers, databases, and other "system software" as applications. User-written software: End-user development tailors systems to meet users' specific needs. User software include spreadsheet templates and word processor templates. Even email filters are a kind of user software. Users create this software themselves and often overlook how important it is. Depending on how competently the user-written software has been integrated into default application packages, many users may not be aware of the distinction between the original packages, and what has been added by co-workers. [edit]Documentation Main article: Software documentation Most software has software documentation so that the end user can understand the program, what it does, and how to use it. Without clear documentation, software can be hard to use—especially if it is very specialized and relatively complex like Photoshop or AutoCAD. Developer documentation may also exist, either with the code as comments and/or as separate files, detailing how the programs works and can be modified. [edit]Library Main article: Software library An executable is almost always not sufficiently complete for direct execution. Software libraries include collections of functions and functionality that may be embedded in other applications. Operating systems include many standard Software libraries, and applications are often distributed with their own libraries. [edit]Standard Main article: Software standard Since software can be designed using many different programming languages and in many different operating systems and operating environments, software standard is needed so that different software can understand and exchange information between each other. For instance, an email sent from a Microsoft Outlook should be readable from Yahoo! Mail and vice versa. [edit]Execution Main article: Execution (computing) Computer software has to be "loaded" into the computer's storage (such as the hard drive or memory). Once the software has loaded, the computer is able to execute the software. This involves passing instructions from the application software, through the system software, to the hardware which ultimately receives the instruction as machine code. Each instruction causes the computer to carry out an operation – moving data, carrying out a computation, or altering the control flow of instructions. Data movement is typically from one place in memory to another. Sometimes it involves moving data between memory and registers which enable high-speed data access in the CPU. Moving data, especially large amounts of it, can be costly. So, this is sometimes avoided by using "pointers" to data instead. Computations include simple operations such as incrementing the value of a variable data element. More complex computations may involve many operations and data elements together. [edit]Quality and reliability Main articles: Software quality, Software testing, and Software reliability Software quality is very important, especially for commercial and system software like Microsoft Office, Microsoft Windows and Linux. If software is faulty (buggy), it can delete a person's work, crash the computer and do other unexpected things. Faults and errors are called "bugs." Many bugs are discovered and eliminated (debugged) through software testing. However, software testing rarely – if ever – eliminates every bug; some programmers say that "every program has at least one more bug" (Lubarsky's Law). All major software companies, such as Microsoft, Novell and Sun Microsystems, have their own software testing departments with the specific goal of just testing. Software can be tested through unit testing, regression testing and other methods, which are done manually, or most commonly, automatically, since the amount of code to be tested can be quite large. For instance, NASA has extremely rigorous software testing procedures for many operating systems and communication functions. Many NASA based operations interact and identify each other through command programs called software. This enables many people who work at NASA to check and evaluate functional systems overall. Programs containing command software enable hardware engineering and system operations to function much easier together. [edit]License Main article: Software license The software's license gives the user the right to use the software in the licensed environment. Some software comes with the license when purchased off the shelf, or an OEM license when bundled with hardware. Other software comes with a free software license, granting the recipient the rights to modify and redistribute the software. Software can also be in the form of freeware or shareware. [edit]Patents Main articles: Software patent and Software patent debate Software can be patented; however, software patents can be controversial in the software industry with many people holding different views about it. The controversy over software patents is that a specific algorithm or technique that the software has may not be duplicated by others and is considered an intellectual property and copyright infringement depending on the severity. [edit]Design and implementation Main articles: Software development, Computer programming, and Software engineering Design and implementation of software varies depending on the complexity of the software. For instance, design and creation of Microsoft Word software will take much more time than designing and developing Microsoft Notepad because of the difference in functionalities in each one. Software is usually designed and created (coded/written/programmed) in integrated development environments (IDE) like Eclipse, Emacs and Microsoft Visual Studio that can simplify the process and compile the program. As noted in different section, software is usually created on top of existing software and the application programming interface (API) that the underlying software provides like GTK+, JavaBeans or Swing. Libraries (APIs) are categorized for different purposes. For instance, JavaBeans library is used for designing enterprise applications, Windows Forms library is used for designing graphical user interface (GUI) applications like Microsoft Word, and Windows Communication Foundation is used for designing web services. Underlying computer programming concepts like quicksort, hashtable, array, and binary tree can be useful to creating software. When a program is designed, it relies on the API. For instance, if a user is designing a Microsoft Windows desktop application, he/she might use the .NET Windows Forms library to design the desktop application and call its APIs like Form1.Close() and Form1.Show()[6] to close or open the application and write the additional operations him/herself that it need to have. Without these APIs, the programmer needs to write these APIs him/herself. Companies like Sun Microsystems, Novell, and Microsoft provide their own APIs so that many applications are written using their software libraries that usually have numerous APIs in them. Computer software has special economic characteristics that make its design, creation, and distribution different from most other economic goods.[7][8] A person who creates software is called a programmer, software engineer, software developer, or code monkey, terms that all have a similar meaning. [edit]Industry and organizations Main article: Software industry A great variety of software companies and programmers in the world comprise a software industry . Software can be quite a profitable industry: Bill Gates, the founder of Microsoft was the richest person in the world in 2009 largely by selling the Microsoft Windows and Microsoft Office software products. The same goes for Larry Ellison, largely through his Oracle database software. Through time the software industry has become increasingly specialized. Non-profit software organizations include the Free Software Foundation, GNU Project and Mozilla Foundation. Software standard organizations like the W3C, IETF develop software standards so that most software can interoperate through standards such as XML, HTML, HTTP or FTP. Other well-known large software companies include Novell, SAP, Symantec, Adobe Systems, and Corel, while small companies often provide innovation. [edit]References ^ "Wordreference.com: WordNet 2.0". Princeton University, Princeton, NJ. Retrieved 2007-08-19. ^ software..(n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved 2007-04-13, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/software ^ Hally, Mike (2005:79). Electronic brains/Stories from the dawn of the computer age. British Broadcasting Corporation and Granta Books, London. ISBN 1-86207-663-4. ^ Leonhardt, David (July 28, 2000). "John Tukey, 85, Statistician; Coined the Word 'Software'". New York Times. ^ Tying Arrangements and the Computer Industry: Digidyne Corp. vs. Data General ^ "MSDN Library". Retrieved 2010-06-14. ^ v. Engelhardt, Sebastian (2008): "The Economic Properties of Software", Jena Economic Research Papers, Volume 2 (2008), Number 2008-045. (in Adobe pdf format) ^ "Why Open Source Is The Optimum Economic Paradigm for Software" by Dan Kaminsky 1999 [edit] Personal computer From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Personal computers) This article is about personal computers in general. For computers generally referred to as "PCs", see IBM PC compatible. For hardware components dealing with personal computers, see Personal computer hardware. An illustration of a modern desktop computer A personal computer (PC) is any general-purpose computer whose size, capabilities, and original sales price make it useful for individuals, and which is intended to be operated directly by an end-user with no intervening computer operator. This is in contrast to the batch processing or time-sharing models which allowed large expensive mainframe systems to be used by many people, usually at the same time, or large data processing systems which required a full-time staff to operate efficiently. It is also in contrast with the more recent trend of controlling software availability through an intervening third party such as the Apple App Store.[1][2] A personal computer may be a desktop computer, a laptop, a tablet PC, or a handheld PC (also called a palmtop). The most common microprocessors in personal computers are x86-compatible CPUs. Software applications for personal computers include word processing, spreadsheets, databases, Web browsers and e-mail clients, games, and myriad personal productivity and special-purpose software applications. Modern personal computers often have connections to the Internet, allowing access to the World Wide Web and a wide range of other resources. A PC may be used at home or in an office. Personal computers may be connected to a local area network (LAN), either by a cable or a wireless connection. While early PC owners usually had to write their own programs to do anything useful with the machines, today's users have access to a wide range of commercial and non-commercial software, which is provided in ready-to-run or ready-to-compile form. Since the 1980s, Microsoft and Intel have dominated much of the personal computer market, first with MS-DOS and then with the Wintel platform. Contents [hide] 1 History 1.1 Market and sales 1.2 Average selling price 2 Types 2.1 Workstation 2.2 Desktop computer 2.2.1 Single unit 2.3 Nettop 2.4 Laptop 2.4.1 Netbook 2.5 Tablet PC 2.6 Ultra-Mobile PC 2.7 Home theater PC 2.8 Pocket PC 3 Hardware 3.1 Computer case 3.2 Processor 3.3 Motherboard 3.4 Main memory 3.5 Hard disk 3.6 Video card 3.7 Visual display unit 3.8 Keyboard 3.9 Mouse 3.10 Other components 4 Software 4.1 Operating system 4.1.1 Microsoft Windows 4.1.2 Mac OS X 4.1.3 Linux 4.2 Applications 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links [edit]History This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2008) Main article: History of personal computers See also: Microcomputer revolution In what was later to be called The Mother of All Demos, SRI researcher Douglas Englebart in 1968 gave a preview of what would become the staples of daily working life in the 21st century - e-mail, hypertext, word processing, video conferencing, and the mouse. The demonstration required technical support staff and a mainframe time-sharing computer that were far too costly for individual business use at the time. By the early 1970s, people in academic or research institutions had the opportunity for single-person use of a computer system in interactive mode for extended durations, although these systems would still have been too expensive to be owned by a single person. HP 9830 was an early desktop computer with printer In the 1970s Hewlett Packard introduced fully BASIC programmable computers that fit entirely on top of a desk, including a keyboard, a small one-line display and printer. The Wang 2200 of 1973 had a full-size CRT and cassette tape storage. The IBM 5100 in 1975 had a small CRT display and could be programmed in BASIC and APL. These were generally expensive specialized computers sold for business or scientific uses. The introduction of the microprocessor, a single chip with all the circuitry that formerly occupied large cabinets, led to the proliferation of personal computers after 1975. Early personal computers - generally called microcomputers - were sold often in kit form and in limited volumes, and were of interest mostly to hobbyists and technicians. Minimal programming was done with toggle switches to enter instructions, and output was provided by front panel lamps. Practical use required peripherals such as keyboards, computer terminals, disk drives, and printers. Micral N was the earliest commercial, non-kit microcomputer based on a microprocessor, the Intel 8008. It was built starting in 1972 and about 90,000 units were sold. The first true Personal Computer was the Sphere 1 computer, created in Bountiful, Utah in 1975 by computer pioneer Michael D. Wise (1949–2002). At first, Sphere 1 was sold as a kit, but was later sold as fully assembled PC. The Sphere 1 qualified as The First Personal Computer because it included a keyboard, a number pad, and a monitor. In 1976 Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak sold the Apple I computer circuit board, which was fully prepared and contained about 30 chips. The first successfully mass marketed personal computer was the Commodore PET introduced in January 1977, which bore a striking resemblance to Sphere 1 of two years earlier. It was soon followed by the TRS-80 from Radio Shack and the popular Apple II. Mass-market pre-assembled computers allowed a wider range of people to use computers, focusing more on software applications and less on development of the processor hardware. Through the late 1970s and into the 1980s, computers were developed for household use, with software for personal productivity, programming and games. One such machine, the Commodore 64, totaled 17 million units sold, making it the best-selling single personal computer model of all time.[3] Somewhat larger and more expensive systems (although still low-cost compared with minicomputers and mainframes) were aimed at office and small business use. Workstations are characterized by high-performance processors and graphics displays, with large local disk storage, networking capability, and running under a multitasking operating system. IBM 5150 as of 1981 Eventually due to the influence of the IBM-PC on the personal computer market, personal computers and home computers lost any technical distinction. Business computers acquired color graphics capability and sound, and home computers and game systems users used the same processors and operating systems as office workers. Mass-market computers had graphics capabilities and memory comparable to dedicated workstations of a few years before. Even local area networking, originally a way to allow business computers to share expensive mass storage and peripherals, became a standard feature of personal computers used at home. [edit]Market and sales See also: Market share of leading PC vendors Personal computers worldwide in million distinguished by developed and developing world In 2001, 125 million personal computers were shipped in comparison to 48 thousand in 1977. More than 500 million personal computers were in use in 2002 and one billion personal computers had been sold worldwide from the mid-1970s up to this time. Of the latter figure, 75 percent were professional or work related, while the rest were sold for personal or home use. About 81.5 percent of personal computers shipped had been desktop computers, 16.4 percent laptops and 2.1 percent servers. The United States had received 38.8 percent (394 million) of the computers shipped, Europe 25 percent and 11.7 percent had gone to the Asia-Pacific region, the fastest-growing market as of 2002. The second billion was expected to be sold by 2008.[4] Almost half of all the households in Western Europe had a personal computer and a computer could be found in 40 percent of homes in United Kingdom, compared with only 13 percent in 1985.[5] The global personal computer shipments were 264 million units in the year 2007, according to iSuppli,[6] up 11.2 percent from 239 million in 2006.[7] In 2004, the global shipments were 183 million units, an 11.6 percent increase over 2003.[8] In 2003, 152.6 million computers were shipped, at an estimated value of $175 billion.[9] In 2002, 136.7 million PCs were shipped, at an estimated value of $175 billion.[9] In 2000, 140.2 million personal computers were shipped, at an estimated value of $226 billion.[9] Worldwide shipments of personal computers surpassed the 100-million mark in 1999, growing to 113.5 million units from 93.3 million units in 1998.[10] In 1999, Asia had 14.1 million units shipped.[11] As of June 2008, the number of personal computers in use worldwide hit one billion, while another billion is expected to be reached by 2014. Mature markets like the United States, Western Europe and Japan accounted for 58 percent of the worldwide installed PCs. The emerging markets were expected to double their installed PCs by 2012 and to take 70 percent of the second billion PCs. About 180 million computers (16 percent of the existing installed base) were expected to be replaced and 35 million to be dumped into landfill in 2008. The whole installed base grew 12 percent annually.[12][13] In the developed world, there has been a vendor tradition to keep adding functions to maintain high prices of personal computers. However, since the introduction of the One Laptop per Child foundation and its low-cost XO-1 laptop, the computing industry started to pursue the price too. Although introduced only one year earlier, there were 14 million netbooks sold in 2008.[14] Besides the regular computer manufacturers, companies making especially rugged versions of computers have sprung up, offering alternatives for people operating their machines in extreme weather or environments.[15] [edit]Average selling price Selling prices of personal computers, unlike other consumer commodities, steadily declined due to lower costs of production and manufacture. Capabilities of the computers also increased. In 1975, an Altair kit sold for only around US $400, but required customers to solder components into circuit boards; perpherals required to interact with the system in alphanumeric form instead of blinking lights would add another $2000, and the resultant system was only of use to hobbyists. [16] At their introduction in 1981, the US $1,795 price of the Osborne 1 and its competitor Kaypro was considered an attractive price point; these systems had text-only displays and only floppy disks for storage. By 1982, Michael Dell observed that an IBM-compatible personal computer system selling at retail for about $3,000 US was made of components that cost the dealer about $600; typical gross margin on a computer unit was around $1,000. [17] The total value of personal computer purchases in the US in 1983 was about $4 billion, comparable to total sales of pet food. By late 1998, the average selling price of personal computer systems in the United States had dropped below $1000. [18] For Microsoft Windows systems, the average selling price (ASP) showed a decline in 2008/2009, possibly due to low-cost netbooks, drawing $569 for desktop computers and $689 for laptops at U.S. retail in August 2008. In 2009, ASP had further fallen to $533 for desktops and to $602 for notebooks by January and to $540 and $560 in February.[19] According to research firm NPD, the average selling price of all Windows portable PCs has fallen from $659 in October 2008 to $519 in October 2009.[20] [edit]Types [edit]Workstation Sun SPARCstation 1+, 25 MHz RISC processor from early 1990s Main article: Workstation A workstation is a high-end personal computer designed for technical or scientific applications. Intended primarily to be used by one person at a time, they are commonly connected to a local area network and run multi-user operating systems. Workstations are used for tasks such as computer-aided design, drafting and modelling, computation-intensive scientific and engineering calculations, image processing, architectural modelling, and computer graphics for animation and motion picture visual effects.[21] [edit]Desktop computer Main article: Desktop computer Dell OptiPlex desktop computer Prior to the wide spread of PCs a computer that could fit on a desk was considered remarkably small. Today the phrase usually indicates a particular style of computer case. Desktop computers come in a variety of styles ranging from large vertical tower cases to small form factor models that can be tucked behind an LCD monitor. In this sense, the term 'desktop' refers specifically to a horizontally-oriented case, usually intended to have the display screen placed on top to save space on the desk top. Most modern desktop computers have separate screens and keyboards. [edit]Single unit Single unit PCs (also known as all-in-one PCs) are a subtype of desktop computers, which combine the monitor and case of the computer within a single unit. The monitor often utilizes a touchscreen as an optional method of user input, however detached keyboards and mice are normally still included. The inner components of the PC are often located directly behind the monitor, and many are built similarly to laptops. [edit]Nettop Main article: Nettop A subtype of desktops, called nettops, was introduced by Intel in February 2008 to describe low-cost, lean-function, desktop computers. A similar subtype of laptops (or notebooks) are the netbooks (see below). These feature the new Intel Atom processor which specially enables them to consume less power and to be built into small enclosures. [edit]Laptop Main article: Laptop Acer 8920 Gemstone Laptop. A laptop computer or simply laptop, also called a notebook computer or sometimes a notebook, is a small personal computer designed for portability. Usually all of the interface hardware needed to operate the laptop, such as USB ports (previously parallel and serial ports), graphics card, sound channel, etc., are built in to a single unit. Laptops contain high capacity batteries that can power the device for extensive periods of time, enhancing portability. Once the battery charge is depleted, it will have to be recharged through a power outlet. In the interest of saving power, weight and space, they usually share RAM with the video channel, slowing their performance compared to an equivalent desktop machine. One main drawback of the laptop is sometimes, due to the size and configuration of components, relatively little can be done to upgrade the overall computer from its original design. Internal upgrades are either not manufacturer recommended, can damage the laptop if done with poor care or knowledge, or in some cases impossible, making the desktop PC more modular. Some internal upgrades, such as memory and hard disks upgrades are often easy, a display or keyboard upgrade is usually impossible. The laptop has the same access as the desktop to the wide variety of devices, such as external displays, mice, cameras, storage devices and keyboards, which may be attached externally through USB ports and other less common ports such as external video. A subtype of notebooks, called subnotebooks, are computers with most of the features of a standard laptop computer but smaller. They are larger than hand-held computers, and usually run full versions of desktop/laptop operating systems. Ultra-Mobile PCs (UMPC) are usually considered subnotebooks, or more specifically, subnotebook Tablet PCs (see below). Netbooks are sometimes considered in this category, though they are sometimes separated in a category of their own (see below). Desktop replacements, meanwhile, are large laptops meant to replace a desktop computer while keeping the mobility of a laptop. Entertainment laptops emphasize large, HDTV-resolution screens and video processing capabilities. [edit]Netbook Main article: Netbook An HP netbook Netbooks (also called mini notebooks or subnotebooks) are a rapidly evolving[22] category of small, light and inexpensive laptop computers suited for general computing and accessing web-based applications; they are often marketed as "companion devices," that is, to augment a user's other computer access.[22] Walt Mossberg called them a "relatively new category of small, light, minimalist and cheap laptops." [23] By August 2009, CNET called netbooks "nothing more than smaller, cheaper notebooks."[22] At their inception in late 2007 — as smaller notebooks optimized for low weight and low cost[24] — netbooks omitted key features (e.g., the optical drive), featured smaller screens and keyboards, and offered reduced specification and computing power. Over the course of their evolution, netbooks have ranged in size from below 5 in[25] to over 13 in,[26] and from ~1 kg (2-3 pounds). Often significantly less expensive than other laptops,[27] by mid-2009, netbooks had been offered to users "free of charge", with an extended service contract purchase of a cellular data plan.[28] In the short period since their appearance, netbooks have grown in size and features, now converging with new smaller, lighter notebooks. By mid 2009, CNET noted "the specs are so similar that the average shopper would likely be confused as to why one is better than the other," noting "the only conclusion is that there really is no distinction between the devices."[22] [edit]Tablet PC Main article: Tablet personal computer HP Compaq tablet PC with rotating/removable keyboard. A tablet PC is a notebook or slate-shaped mobile computer, first introduced by Pen computing in the early 90s with their PenGo Tablet Computer and popularized by Microsoft. Its touchscreen or graphics tablet/screen hybrid technology allows the user to operate the computer with a stylus or digital pen, or a fingertip, instead of a keyboard or mouse. The form factor offers a more mobile way to interact with a computer. Tablet PCs are often used where normal notebooks are impractical or unwieldy, or do not provide the needed functionality. As technology and functionality continue to progress, prototype tablet computers will continue to emerge. The Microsoft Courier, a personal business device, has two 7" monitors that support multi-touch gestures, Wi-Fi capabilities and has a built-in camera. The device looks to be a replacement to traditional planners while offering what most digital planners cannot, two pages and large writing spaces. This particular device, however, has been recently abandoned and the market is currently being led by the popular iPad from Apple Inc.[29] [edit]Ultra-Mobile PC Main article: Ultra-Mobile PC Samsung Q1 Ultra-Mobile PC. The ultra-mobile PC (UMPC) is a specification for a small form factor of tablet PCs. It was developed as a joint development exercise by Microsoft, Intel, and Samsung, among others. Current UMPCs typically feature the Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, or Linux operating system and low-voltage Intel Atom or VIA C7-M processors. [edit]Home theater PC Main article: Home theater PC Antec Fusion V2 home theater PC with keyboard on top. A home theater PC (HTPC) is a convergence device that combines the functions of a personal computer and a digital video recorder. It is connected to a television or a television-sized computer display and is often used as a digital photo, music, video player, TV receiver and digital video recorder. Home theater PCs are also referred to as media center systems or media servers. The general goal in a HTPC is usually to combine many or all components of a home theater setup into one box. They can be purchased pre-configured with the required hardware and software needed to add television programming to the PC, or can be cobbled together out of discrete components as is commonly done with MythTV, Windows Media Center, GB-PVR, SageTV, Famulent or LinuxMCE. [edit]Pocket PC Main article: Pocket PC An O2 pocket PC A pocket PC is a hardware specification for a handheld-sized computer (personal digital assistant) that runs the Microsoft Windows Mobile operating system. It may have the capability to run an alternative operating system like NetBSD or Linux. It has many of the capabilities of modern desktop PCs. Currently there are tens of thousands of applications for handhelds adhering to the Microsoft Pocket PC specification, many of which are freeware. Some of these devices also include mobile phone features. Microsoft compliant Pocket PCs can also be used with many other add-ons like GPS receivers, barcode readers, RFID readers, and cameras. In 2007, with the release of Windows Mobile 6, Microsoft dropped the name Pocket PC in favor of a new naming scheme. Devices without an integrated phone are called Windows Mobile Classic instead of Pocket PC. Devices with an integrated phone and a touch screen are called Windows Mobile Professional.[30] [edit]Hardware An exploded view of a modern personal computer and peripherals: Scanner CPU (Microprocessor) Primary storage (RAM) Expansion cards (graphics cards, etc.) Power supply Optical disc drive Secondary storage (Hard disk) Motherboard Speakers Monitor System software Application software Keyboard Mouse External hard disk Printer Main article: Personal computer hardware Mass-market consumer computers use highly standardized components and so are simple for an end user to assemble into a working system. A typical desktop computer consists of a computer case which holds the power supply, motherboard, hard disk and often an optical disc. External devices such as a video monitor or visual display unit, keyboard, and a pointing device are usually found in a personal computer. The motherboard connects all processor, memory and peripheral devices together. The memory card(s), graphics card and processor are mounted directly onto the motherboard. The central processing unit microprocessor chip plugs into a socket. Expansion memory plugs into memory sockets. Some motherboards have the video display adapter, sound and other peripherals integrated onto the motherboard. Others use expansion slots for graphics cards, network cards, or other I/O devices. Disk drives for mass storage are connected to the mother board with a cable, and to the power supply through another cable. Usually disk drives are mounted in the same case as the motherboard; formerly, expansion chassis were made for additional disk storage. The graphics and sound card can have a break out box to keep the analog parts away from the electromagnetic radiation inside the computer case. For really large amounts of data, a tape drive can be used or (extra) hard disks can be put together in an external case. The keyboard and the mouse are external devices plugged into the computer through connectors on an I/O panel on the back of the computer. The monitor is also connected to the I/O panel, either through an onboard port on the motherboard, or a port on the graphics card. The hardware capabilities of personal computers can sometimes be extended by the addition of expansion cards connected via an expansion bus. Some standard peripheral buses often used for adding expansion cards in personal computers as of 2005 are PCI, AGP (a high-speed PCI bus dedicated to graphics adapters), and PCI Express. Most personal computers as of 2005 have multiple physical PCI expansion slots. Many also include an AGP bus and expansion slot or a PCI Express bus and one or more expansion slots, but few PCs contain both buses. [edit]Computer case Main article: Computer case A stripped ATX case lying on its side. A computer case is the enclosure that contains the main components of a computer. Cases are usually constructed from steel or aluminium, although other materials such as wood and plastic have been used. Cases can come in many different sizes, or form factors. The size and shape of a computer case is usually determined by the form factor of the motherboard that it is designed to accommodate, since this is the largest and most central component of most computers. Consequently, personal computer form factors typically specify only the internal dimensions and layout of the case. Form factors for rack-mounted and blade servers may include precise external dimensions as well, since these cases must themselves fit in specific enclosures. Currently, the most popular form factor for desktop computers is ATX, although microATX and small form factors have become very popular for a variety of uses. Companies like Shuttle Inc. and AOpen have popularized small cases, for which FlexATX is the most common motherboard size. [edit]Processor Main article: Central processing unit AMD Athlon 64 X2 CPU. The central processing unit, or CPU, is that part of a computer which executes software program instructions. In older computers this circuitry was formerly on several printed circuit boards, but in PCs is a single integrated circuit. Nearly all PCs contain a type of CPU known as a microprocessor. The microprocessor often plugs into the motherboard using one of many different types of sockets. IBM PC compatible computers use an x86-compatible processor, usually made by Intel, AMD, VIA Technologies or Transmeta. Apple Macintosh computers were initially built with the Motorola 680x0 family of processors, then switched to the PowerPC series (a RISC architecture jointly developed by Apple Computer, IBM and Motorola), but as of 2006, Apple switched again, this time to x86-compatible processors by Intel. Modern CPUs are equipped with a fan attached via heat sink. [edit]Motherboard Main article: Motherboard Asus motherboard The motherboard, also referred to as systemboard or mainboard, is the primary circuit board within a personal computer. Many other components connect directly or indirectly to the motherboard. Motherboards usually contain one or more CPUs, supporting circuitry - usually integrated circuits (ICs) - providing the interface between the CPU memory and input/output peripheral circuits, main memory, and facilities for initial setup of the computer immediately after power-on (often called boot firmware or, in IBM PC compatible computers, a BIOS). In many portable and embedded personal computers, the motherboard houses nearly all of the PC's core components. Often a motherboard will also contain one or more peripheral buses and physical connectors for expansion purposes. Sometimes a secondary daughter board is connected to the motherboard to provide further expandability or to satisfy space constraints. [edit]Main memory Main article: Primary storage 1GB DDR SDRAM PC-3200 module A PC's main memory is fast storage that is directly accessible by the CPU, and is used to store the currently executing program and immediately needed data. PCs use semiconductor random access memory (RAM) of various kinds such as DRAM, SDRAM or SRAM as their primary storage. Which exact kind depends on cost/performance issues at any particular time. Main memory is much faster than mass storage devices like hard disks or optical discs, but is usually volatile, meaning it does not retain its contents (instructions or data) in the absence of power, and is much more expensive for a given capacity than is most mass storage. Main memory is generally not suitable for long-term or archival data storage. [edit]Hard disk Main article: Hard disk drive A Western Digital 250 GB hard disk drive. Mass storage devices store programs and data even when the power is off; they do require power to perform read and write functions during usage. Although flash memory has dropped in cost, the prevailing form of mass storage in personal computers is still the hard disk. The disk drives use a sealed head/disk assembly (HDA) which was first introduced by IBM's "Winchester" disk system. The use of a sealed assembly allowed the use of positive air pressure to drive out particles from the surface of the disk, which improves reliability. If the mass storage controller provides for expandability, a PC may also be upgraded by the addition of extra hard disk or optical disc drives. For example, BD-ROMs, DVD-RWs, and various optical disc recorders may all be added by the user to certain PCs. Standard internal storage device connection interfaces are PATA, Serial ATA, SCSI [edit]Video card Main article: Video card ATI Radeon video card The video card - otherwise called a graphics card, graphics adapter or video adapter - processes and renders the graphics output from the computer to the computer display, and is an essential part of the modern computer. On older models, and today on budget models, graphics circuitry tended to be integrated with the motherboard but, for modern flexible machines, they are supplied in PCI, AGP, or PCI Express format. When the IBM PC was introduced, most existing business-oriented personal computers used text-only display adapters and had no graphics capability. Home computers at that time had graphics compatible with television signals, but with low resolution by modern standards owing to the limited memory available to the eight-bit processors available at the time. [edit]Visual display unit Main article: Visual display unit A flat-panel LCD monitor. A visual display unit (or monitor) is a piece of electrical equipment, usually separate from the computer case, which displays viewable images generated by a computer without producing a permanent record. The word "monitor" is used in other contexts; in particular in television broadcasting, where a television picture is displayed to a high standard. A computer display device is usually either a cathode ray tube or some form of flat panel such as a TFT LCD. The monitor comprises the display device, circuitry to generate a picture from electronic signals sent by the computer, and an enclosure or case. Within the computer, either as an integral part or a plugged-in Expansion card, there is circuitry to convert internal data to a format compatible with a monitor. The images from monitors originally contained only text, but as Graphical user interfaces emerged and became common, they began to display more images and multimedia content. [edit]Keyboard Main article: Keyboard (computing) A computer keyboard In computing, a keyboard is an arrangement of buttons that each correspond to a function, letter, or number. They are the primary devices of inputing text. In most cases, they contain an array of keys specifically organized with the corresponding letters, numbers, and functions printed or engraved on the button. They are generally designed around an operators language, and many different versions for different languages exist. In English, the most common layout is the QWERTY layout, which was originally used in typewriters. They have evolved over time, and have been modified for use in computers with the addition of function keys, number keys, arrow keys, and OS specific keys. Often, specific functions can be achieved by pressing multiple keys at once or in succession, such as inputing characters with accents or opening a task manager. Programs use keyboard shotcuts very differently and all use different keyboard shortcuts for different program specific operations, such as refreshing a web page in a web browser or selecting all text in a word processor. [edit]Mouse Main article: Mouse (computing) Apple Mighty Mouse that detects the right and left clicks through what appears to be one large button. A Mouse on a computer is a small, slidable device that users hold and slide around to point at, click on, and sometimes drag objects on screen in a graphical user interface using a pointer on screen. Almost all Personal Computers have mice. It may be plugged into a computer's rear mouse socket, or as a USB device, or, more recently, may be connected wirelessly via a USB antenna or Bluetooth antenna. In the past, they had a single button that users could press down on the device to "click" on whatever the pointer on the screen was hovering over. Now, however, many Mice have two or three buttons(possibly more); a "right click" function button on the mouse, which performs a secondary action on a selected object, and a scroll wheel, which users can rotate using their fingers to "scroll" up or down. The scroll wheel can also be pressed down, and therefore be used as a third button. Some mouse wheels may be tilted from side to side to allow sideways scrolling. Different programs make use of these functions differently, and may scroll horizontally by default with the scroll wheel, open different menus with different buttons, among others. These functions may be user defined through software utilities. Mice traditionally detected movement and communicated with the computer with an internal "mouse ball"; and used optical encoders to detect rotation of the ball and tell the computer where the mouse has moved. However, these systems were subject to low durability, accuracy and required internal cleaning. Modern mice use optical technology to directly trace movement of the surface under the mouse and are much more accurate, durable and almost maintenace free. They work on a wider variety of surfaces and can even operate on walls, ceilings or other non-horizontal surfaces. [edit]Other components Proper ergonomic design of personal computer workplace is necessary to prevent repetitive strain injuries, which can develop over time and can lead to long-term disability.[31] Mass storage All computers require either fixed or removable storage for their operating system, programs and user generated material. Formerly the 5¼ inch and 3½ inch floppy drive were the principal forms of removable storage for backup of user files and distribution of software. As memory sizes increased, the capacity of the floppy did not keep pace; the Zip drive and other higher-capacity removable media were introduced but never became as prevalent as the floppy drive. By the late 1990s the optical drive, in CD and later DVD and Blu-ray Disc, became the main method for software distribution, and writeable media provided backup and file interchange. Floppy drives have become uncommon in desktop personal computers since about 2000, and were dropped from many laptop systems even earlier.[note 1] Early home computers used compact audio cassettes for file storage; these were at the time a very low cost storage solution, but were displaced by floppy disk drives when manufacturing costs dropped, by the mid 1980s. A second generation of tape recorders was provided when Videocassette recorders were pressed into service as backup media for larger disk drives. All these systems were less reliable and slower than purpose-built magnetic tape drives. Such tape drives were uncommon in consumer-type personal computers but were a necessity in business or industrial use. Interchange of data such as photographs from digital cameras is greatly expedited by installation of a card reader, which often is compatible with several forms of flash memory. It is usually faster and more convenient to move large amounts of data by removing the card from the mobile device, instead of communicating with the mobile device through a USB interface. A USB flash drive today performs much of the data transfer and backup functions formerly done with floppy drives, Zip disks and other devices. Main-stream current operating systems for personal computers provide standard support for flash drives, allowing interchange even between computers using different processors and operating systems. The compact size and lack of moving parts or dirt-sensitive media, combined with low cost for high capacity, have made flash drives a popular and useful accessory for any personal computer user. The operating system (e.g.: Microsoft Windows, Mac OS, Linux or many others) can be located on any storage, but typically it is on a hard disks. A Live CD is the running of a OS directly from a CD. While this is slow compared to storing the OS on a hard drive, it is typically used for installation of operating systems, demonstrations, system recovery, or other special purposes. Large flash memory is currently more expensive than hard drives of similar size (as of mid-2008) but are starting to appear in laptop computers because of their low weight, small size and low power requirements. Computer communications Internal modem card Modem Network adapter card Router Common peripherals and adapter cards Headset Joystick Microphone Printer Scanner Sound adapter card as a separate card rather than located on the motherboard Speakers Webcam [edit]Software Main article: Computer software A screenshot of the OpenOffice.org Writer software Computer software is a general term used to describe a collection of computer programs, procedures and documentation that perform some tasks on a computer system.[32] The term includes application software such as word processors which perform productive tasks for users, system software such as operating systems, which interface with hardware to provide the necessary services for application software, and middleware which controls and co-ordinates distributed systems. Software applications for word processing, Internet browsing, Internet faxing, e-mail and other digital messaging, multimedia playback, computer game play and computer programming are common. The user of a modern personal computer may have significant knowledge of the operating environment and application programs, but is not necessarily interested in programming nor even able to write programs for the computer. Therefore, most software written primarily for personal computers tends to be designed with simplicity of use, or "user-friendliness" in mind. However, the software industry continuously provide a wide range of new products for use in personal computers, targeted at both the expert and the non-expert user. [edit]Operating system Main article: Operating system An operating system (OS) manages computer resources and provides programmers with an interface used to access those resources. An operating system processes system data and user input, and responds by allocating and managing tasks and internal system resources as a service to users and programs of the system. An operating system performs basic tasks such as controlling and allocating memory, prioritizing system requests, controlling input and output devices, facilitating computer networking and managing files. Common contemporary desktop OSes are Microsoft Windows (92.78% market share), Mac OS X (5.12%), Linux (0.95%),[33] Solaris and FreeBSD. Windows, Mac, and Linux all have server and personal variants. With the exception of Microsoft Windows, the designs of each of the aforementioned OSs were inspired by, or directly inherited from, the Unix operating system. Unix was developed at Bell Labs beginning in the late 1960s and spawned the development of numerous free and proprietary operating systems. [edit]Microsoft Windows Main article: Microsoft Windows Windows 7, the latest client version in the Microsoft Windows line Microsoft Windows is the collective brand name of several software operating systems by Microsoft. Microsoft first introduced an operating environment named Windows in November 1985 as an add-on to MS-DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces (GUIs).[34][35][not in citation given] The most recent client version of Windows is Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 which was available at retail on October 22, 2009. [edit]Mac OS X Main article: Mac OS X Mac OS X Snow Leopard desktop Mac OS X is a line of graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Apple Inc.. Mac OS X is the successor to the original Mac OS, which had been Apple's primary operating system since 1984. Unlike its predecessors, Mac OS X is a Unix-based graphical operating system. The most recent version of Mac OS X is Mac OS X 10.6 "Snow Leopard", and the current server version is Mac OS X Server 10.6. On October 20, 2010, at a keynote event held at Apple's headquarters in Cupertino, CA, Apple announced Mac OS X 10.7 "Lion", which is slated for arrival in the summer of 2011. [edit]Linux Main article: Linux A Linux distribution (Kubuntu) running the KDE 4 desktop environment. Linux is a family of Unix-like computer operating systems. Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free software and open source development: typically all underlying source code can be freely modified, used, and redistributed by anyone.[36] The name "Linux" comes from the Linux kernel, started in 1991 by Linus Torvalds. The system's utilities and libraries usually come from the GNU operating system, announced in 1983 by Richard Stallman. The GNU contribution is the basis for the alternative name GNU/Linux.[37] Known for its use in servers as part of the LAMP application stack, Linux is supported by corporations such as Dell, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Novell, Oracle Corporation, Red Hat, Canonical Ltd. and Sun Microsystems. It is used as an operating system for a wide variety of computer hardware, including desktop computers, netbooks, supercomputers,[38] video game systems, such as the PlayStation 3, several arcade games, and embedded devices such as mobile phones, portable media players, routers, and stage lighting systems. [edit]Applications This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2008) Main article: Application software GIMP raster graphics editor A computer user will apply application software to carry out a specific task. System software supports applications and provides common services such as memory management, network connectivity, or device drivers; all of which may be used by applications but which are not directly of interest to the end user. A simple, if imperfect analogy in the world of hardware would be the relationship of an electric light bulb (an application) to an electric power generation plant (a system). The power plant merely generates electricity, not itself of any real use until harnessed to an application like the electric light that performs a service that benefits the user. Typical examples of software applications are word processors, spreadsheets, and media players. Multiple applications bundled together as a package are sometimes referred to as an application suite. Microsoft Office and OpenOffice.org, which bundle together a word processor, a spreadsheet, and several other discrete applications, are typical examples. The separate applications in a suite usually have a user interface that has some commonality making it easier for the user to learn and use each application. And often they may have some capability to interact with each other in ways beneficial to the user. For example, a spreadsheet might be able to be embedded in a word processor document even though it had been created in the separate spreadsheet application. End-user development tailors systems to meet the user's specific needs. User-written software include spreadsheet templates, word processor macros, scientific simulations, graphics and animation scripts. Even email filters are a kind of user software. Users create this software themselves and often overlook how important it is. [edit]See also Computer Science portal Electronics portal Computer virus Desktop computer Desktop replacement computer e-waste Gaming PC Information and communication technologies for development List of computer system manufacturers Market share of leading PC vendors Personal Computer Museum Public computer Quiet PC Trashware Computer case [edit]Notes ^ The NeXT computer introduced in 1988 did not include a floppy drive, which at the time was unusual. [edit]References ^ Conlon, Tom (29 January 2010), The iPad’s Closed System: Sometimes I Hate Being Right, Popular Science, "The iPad is not a personal computer in the sense that we currently understand." ^ Steve Jobs Offers World 'Freedom From Porn', Gawker.com, 15 May 2010, retrieved 2010-10-14, "some traditional PC folks feel like their world is slipping away." ^ Reimer, Jeremy (2 November 2009). "Personal Computer Market Share: 1975–2004". Retrieved 2009-07-17. ^ Kanellos, Michael (30 June 2002). "personal computers: More than 1 billion served". cnet news. Retrieved 2010-10-14. ^ "Computers reach one billion mark". BBC News. 1 July 2002. Retrieved 2010-10-14. ^ ISuppli Raises 2007 Computer Sales Forecast], pcworld.com, http://www.pcworld.com/article/133102/isuppli_raises_2007_computer_sales_forecast.html, retrieved 13 January 2009 ^ iSuppli raises 2007 computer sales forecast, macworld.co.uk, retrieved 13 January 2009 ^ Global PC Sales Leveling Off, newsfactor.com, retrieved 13 January 2009 ^ a b c HP back on top of PC market, retrieved 13 January 2009 ^ "Dell Passes Compaq as Top PC Seller in U.S". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 13 January 2009. ^ Economic recovery bumps AP 1999 PC shipments to record high, zdnetasia.com, retrieved 13 January 2009 ^ Gartner (23 June 2008). "Gartner Says More than 1 Billion PCs In Use Worldwide and Headed to 2 Billion Units by 2014". Press release. Retrieved 2010-10-14. ^ Tarmo Virki (23 June 2008). "Computers in use pass 1 billion mark: Gartner". Reuters. Retrieved 2010-10-14. ^ "4P Computing - Negroponte's 14 Million Laptop Impact". OLPC News. 11 December 2008. Retrieved 2010-10-14. ^ Conrad H. Blickenstorfer. "Rugged PC leaders". Ruggedpcreview.com. Retrieved 2010-10-14. ^ Marvin B. Sussman Personal Computers and the Family Routledge, 1985 ISBN 086656361X page 90 ^ Kateri M. Drexler Icons of business: an encyclopedia of mavericks, movers, and shakers, Volume 1,Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007 ISBN 0313338639 page 102 ^ http://www.pcworld.com/article/9150/average_pc_price_drops_below_1000.html Nancy Weil , Average PC Price drops below $1000, PC World December 1998, retrieved 2010 Nov 17 ^ Joe Wilcox (16 April 2009). "Netbooks Are Destroying the Laptop Market and Microsoft Needs to Act Now". eWeek.com. Retrieved 2010-10-14. ^ "Falling PC Prices Pit Microsoft Against PC Makers author=Shane O'Neill". 2 December 2009. Retrieved 2010-10-14. ^ Ralston, Anthony; Reilly, Edwin (1993). "Workstation". Encyclopedia of Computer Science (Third Edition ed.). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. ISBN 0442276796. ^ a b c d Erica Ogg (20 August 2009). "Time to drop the Netbook label". CNN. ^ Walt Mossberg (6 August 2009). "New Netbook Offers Long Battery Life and Room to Type". The Wall Street Journal Online, Personal Technology. ^ "Cheap PCs Weigh on Microsoft". Business Technologies, The Wall Street Journal. 8 December 2008. ^ "UMID Netbook Only 4.8″". Elitezoom.com. Retrieved 2010-10-14. ^ "CES 2009 - MSI Unveils the X320 “MacBook Air Clone” Netbook". Futurelooks.com. 2009-01-07. Retrieved 2010-10-14. ^ Netbook Trends and Solid-State Technology Forecast. pricegrabber.com. p. 7. Retrieved 2009-01-28. ^ Light and Cheap, Netbooks Are Poised to Reshape PC Industry, The New York Times, 1 April 2009, retrieved 2010-10-14, "AT&T announced on Tuesday that customers in Atlanta could get a type of compact PC called a netbook for just 50 US$ if they signed up for an Internet service plan... 'The era of a perfect Internet computer for 99 US$ is coming this year,' said Jen-Hsun Huang, the chief executive of Nvidia, a maker of PC graphics chips that is trying to adapt to the new technological order." ^ Priya Ganapati (29 April 2010). "Microsoft Cancels Courier Tablet". Wired. Retrieved 2010-10-14. ^ New Windows Mobile 6 Devices :: Jun/Jul 2007[dead link] ^ Berkeley Lab. Integrated Safety Management: Ergonomics.[dead link] Website. Retrieved 9 July 2008. ^ "Wordreference.com: WordNet 2.0". Princeton University, Princeton, NJ. Retrieved 2007-08-19. ^ [1][dead link] Marketshare.com ^ Mary Bellis. "The Unusual History of Microsoft Windows". About.com. Retrieved 2010-10-14. ^ "IDC: Consolidation to Windows won't happen". Linuxworld. Retrieved 2010-10-14. ^ "Linux Online ─ About the Linux Operating System". Linux.org. Retrieved 2007-07-06. ^ Weeks, Alex (2004). "1.1". Linux System Administrator's Guide (version 0.9 ed.). Retrieved 2007-01-18. ^ Lyons, Daniel. "Linux rules supercomputers". Retrieved 2007-02-22. Macintosh From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about Apple personal computers. For other uses, see McIntosh. The original Macintosh, the first commercially successful personal computer to use a graphical user interface, rather than a command line. An iMac computer from August 2009, a modern all-in-one Macintosh. The Macintosh (pronounced /ˈmækɨntɒʃ/ MAK-in-tosh),[1] or Mac, is a series of several lines of personal computers designed, developed, and marketed by Apple Inc. The first Macintosh was introduced on January 24, 1984; it was the first commercially successful personal computer to feature a mouse and a graphical user interface rather than a command-line interface.[2] The company continued to have success through the second half of the 1980s, only to see it dissipate in the 1990s as the personal computer market shifted towards IBM PC compatible machines running MS-DOS and Microsoft Windows.[3] Apple consolidated its multiple consumer-level desktop models years later into the 1998 iMac all-in-one. This proved to be a sales success and saw the Macintosh brand revitalized, albeit not to the market share level it once had. Current Mac systems are mainly targeted at the home, education, and creative professional markets. They are: the aforementioned (though upgraded and modified in various ways) iMac and the entry-level Mac mini desktop models, the Mac Pro tower graphics workstation, the MacBook, MacBook Air and MacBook Pro laptops. The Xserve server will be discontinued in early 2011.[4] Production of the Mac is based on a vertical integration model in that Apple facilitates all aspects of its hardware and creates its own operating system that is pre-installed on all Mac computers. This is in contrast to most IBM PC compatibles, where multiple sellers create and integrate hardware intended to run another company's operating software. Apple exclusively produces Mac hardware, choosing internal systems, designs, and prices. Apple does use third party components, however. Current Mac CPUs use Intel's x86 architecture; the earliest models (1984–1994) used Motorola's 68k and models from 1994–2006 used the AIM alliance's PowerPC. Apple also develops the operating system for the Mac, currently Mac OS X version 10.6 "Snow Leopard". The modern Mac, like other personal computers, is capable of running alternative operating systems such as Linux, FreeBSD, and, in the case of Intel-based Macs, Microsoft Windows. However, Apple does not license Mac OS X for use on non-Apple computers. Contents [hide] 1 History 1.1 1979 to 1984: Development 1.2 1984: Introduction 1.3 1985 to 1989: Desktop publishing era 1.4 1990 to 1998: Growth and decline 1.5 1998 to 2005: New beginnings 1.6 2006 onward: Intel era 1.7 Timeline of Macintosh models 2 Product line 3 Hardware and software 3.1 Hardware 3.2 Software 4 Advertising 5 Market share and user demographics 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links History See also: History of Apple 1979 to 1984: Development Part of the original Macintosh design team, as seen on the cover of Revolution in the Valley. Left to right: George Crow, Joanna Hoffman, Burrell Smith, Andy Hertzfeld, a Macintosh, Bill Atkinson, Jerry Manock. The Macintosh project started in the late 1970s with Jef Raskin, an Apple employee, who envisioned an easy-to-use, low-cost computer for the average consumer. He wanted to name the computer after his favorite type of apple, the McIntosh,[5] but the name had to be changed for legal reasons as it was too close, phonetically, to that of the McIntosh audio equipment manufacturer. Steve Jobs requested a release of the name so that Apple could use it, but was denied, forcing Apple to eventually buy the rights to use the name.[6] Raskin was authorized to start hiring for the project in September 1979,[7] and he began to look for an engineer who could put together a prototype. Bill Atkinson, a member of Apple's Lisa team (which was developing a similar but higher-end computer), introduced him to Burrell Smith, a service technician who had been hired earlier that year. Over the years, Raskin assembled a large development team that designed and built the original Macintosh hardware and software; besides Raskin, Atkinson and Smith, the team included George Crow,[8] Chris Espinosa, Joanna Hoffman, Bruce Horn, Susan Kare, Andy Hertzfeld, Guy Kawasaki, Daniel Kottke,[9] and Jerry Manock.[10][11] Smith’s first Macintosh board was built to Raskin’s design specifications: it had 64 kilobytes (KB) of RAM, used the Motorola 6809E microprocessor, and was capable of supporting a 256×256 pixel black-and-white bitmap display. Bud Tribble, a Macintosh programmer, was interested in running the Lisa’s graphical programs on the Macintosh, and asked Smith whether he could incorporate the Lisa’s Motorola 68000 microprocessor into the Mac while still keeping the production cost down. By December 1980, Smith had succeeded in designing a board that not only used the 68000, but bumped its speed from 5 to 8 megahertz (MHz); this board also had the capacity to support a 384×256 pixel display. Smith’s design used fewer RAM chips than the Lisa, which made production of the board significantly more cost-efficient. The final Mac design was self-contained and had the complete QuickDraw picture language and interpreter in 64 KB of ROM – far more than most other computers; it had 128 KB of RAM, in the form of sixteen 64 kilobit (Kb) RAM chips soldered to the logicboard. Though there were no memory slots, its RAM was expandable to 512 KB by means of soldering sixteen chip sockets to accept 256 Kb RAM chips in place of the factory-installed chips. The final product's screen was a 9-inch, 512x342 pixel monochrome display, exceeding the prototypes.[12] The original 1984 Mac OS desktop featured a radically new graphical user interface. Users communicated with the computer not through abstract textual commands but rather using a metaphorical desktop that included real life items that the user was already familiar with. The design caught the attention of Steve Jobs, co-founder of Apple. Realizing that the Macintosh was more marketable than the Lisa, he began to focus his attention on the project. Raskin finally left the Macintosh project in 1981 over a personality conflict with Jobs, and team member Andy Hertzfeld said that the final Macintosh design is closer to Jobs’ ideas than Raskin’s.[7] After hearing of the pioneering GUI technology being developed at Xerox PARC, Jobs had negotiated a visit to see the Xerox Alto computer and Smalltalk development tools in exchange for Apple stock options. The Lisa and Macintosh user interfaces were partially influenced by technology seen at Xerox PARC and were combined with the Macintosh group's own ideas.[13] Jobs also commissioned industrial designer Hartmut Esslinger to work on the Macintosh line, resulting in the "Snow White" design language; although it came too late for the earliest Macs, it was implemented in most other mid- to late-1980s Apple computers.[14] However, Jobs’ leadership at the Macintosh project did not last; after an internal power struggle with new CEO John Sculley, Jobs resigned from Apple in 1985,[15] went on to found NeXT, another computer company,[16] and did not return until 1997 when Apple acquired NeXT.[17] 1984: Introduction This television commercial, first aired during Super Bowl XVIII, launched the original Macintosh. The Macintosh 128k was announced to the press in October 1983, followed by an 18-page brochure included with various magazines in December.[18] The Macintosh was introduced by the now famous US$1.5 million Ridley Scott television commercial, "1984".[19] The commercial most notably aired during the third quarter of Super Bowl XVIII on 22 January 1984 and is now considered a "watershed event"[20] and a "masterpiece."[21] "1984" used an unnamed heroine to represent the coming of the Macintosh (indicated by a Picasso-style picture of Apple’s Macintosh computer on her white tank top) as a means of saving humanity from the "conformity" of IBM's attempts to dominate the computer industry. The ad alludes to George Orwell's novel, Nineteen Eighty-Four, which described a dystopian future ruled by a televised "Big Brother."[22][23] Two days after the 1984 ad aired, the Macintosh went on sale. It came bundled with two applications designed to show off its interface: MacWrite and MacPaint. It was first demonstrated by Steve Jobs in the first of his famous Mac Keynote speeches, and though the Mac garnered an immediate, enthusiastic following, some labeled it a mere "toy."[24] Because the operating system was designed largely around the GUI, existing text-mode and command-driven applications had to be redesigned and the programming code rewritten. This was a time consuming task that many software developers chose not to undertake, and could be regarded as a reason for an initial lack of software for the new system. In April 1984 Microsoft's MultiPlan migrated over from MS-DOS, with Microsoft Word following in January 1985.[25] In 1985, Lotus Software introduced Lotus Jazz for the Macintosh platform after the success of Lotus 1-2-3 for the IBM PC, although it was largely a flop.[26] Apple introduced Macintosh Office the same year with the lemmings ad. Infamous for insulting its own potential customers, it was not successful.[27] The Apple Macintosh Plus at the Design Museum in Gothenburg, Sweden. For a special post-election edition of Newsweek in November 1984, Apple spent more than US$2.5 million to buy all 39 of the advertising pages in the issue.[28] Apple also ran a “Test Drive a Macintosh” promotion, in which potential buyers with a credit card could take home a Macintosh for 24 hours and return it to a dealer afterwards. While 200,000 people participated, dealers disliked the promotion, the supply of computers was insufficient for demand, and many were returned in such a bad shape that they could no longer be sold. This marketing campaign caused CEO John Sculley to raise the price from US$1,995 to US$2,495 (adjusting for inflation, about $5,200 in 2010).[27][29] 1985 to 1989: Desktop publishing era In 1985, the combination of the Mac, Apple’s LaserWriter printer, and Mac-specific software like Boston Software’s MacPublisher and Aldus PageMaker enabled users to design, preview, and print page layouts complete with text and graphics—an activity to become known as desktop publishing. Initially, desktop publishing was unique to the Macintosh, but eventually became available for other platforms as well.[30] Later, applications such as Macromedia FreeHand, QuarkXPress, Adobe Photoshop, and Adobe Illustrator strengthened the Mac’s position as a graphics computer and helped to expand the emerging desktop publishing market. The limitations of the first Mac soon became clear: it had very little memory, even compared with other personal computers in 1984, and could not be expanded easily; and it lacked a hard disk drive or the means to attach one easily. In October 1985, Apple increased the Mac’s memory to 512 KB, but it was inconvenient and difficult to expand the memory of a 128 KB Mac.[31] In an attempt to improve connectivity, Apple released the Macintosh Plus on January 10, 1986 for US$2,600. It offered one megabyte of RAM, expandable to four, and a SCSI parallel interface, allowing up to seven peripherals—such as hard drives and scanners—to be attached to the machine. Its floppy drive was increased to an 800 KB capacity. The Mac Plus was an immediate success and remained in production, unchanged, until October 15, 1990; on sale for just over four years and ten months, it was the longest-lived Macintosh in Apple's history.[32] The Macintosh II, one of the first expandable Macintosh models. Updated Motorola CPUs made a faster machine possible, and in 1987 Apple took advantage of the new Motorola technology and introduced the Macintosh II, which used a 16 MHz Motorola 68020 processor.[33] The primary improvement in the Macintosh II was Color QuickDraw in ROM, a color version of the graphics language which was the heart of the machine. Among the many innovations in Color QuickDraw were an ability to handle any display size, any color depth, and multiple monitors. The Macintosh II marked the start of a new direction for the Macintosh, as now for the first time it had an open architecture with several NuBus expansion slots, support for color graphics and external monitors, and a modular design similar to that of the IBM PC. It had an internal hard drive and a power supply with a fan, which was initially fairly loud.[34] One third-party developer sold a device to regulate fan speed based on a heat sensor, but it voided the warranty.[35] Later Macintosh computers had quieter power supplies and hard drives. In September 1986 Apple introduced the Macintosh Programmer's Workshop, or MPW that allowed software developers to create software for Macintosh on Macintosh, rather than cross compiling from a Lisa. In August 1987 Apple unveiled HyperCard, and introduced MultiFinder, which added cooperative multitasking to the Macintosh. Apple began bundling both with every Macintosh. The Macintosh SE was released at the same time as the Macintosh II, as the first compact Mac with a 20 MB internal hard drive and one expansion slot.[36] The SE's expansion slot was located inside the case along with the CRT, potentially exposing an upgrader to high voltage. For this reason Apple recommended users bring their SE to an authorized Apple dealer to have upgrades performed.[37] The SE also updated Jerry Manock and Terry Oyama's original design and shared the Macintosh II's Snow White design language, as well as the new Apple Desktop Bus (ADB) mouse and keyboard that had first appeared on the Apple IIGS some months earlier. In 1987, Apple spun off its software business as Claris. It was given the code and rights to several applications that had been written within Apple, notably MacWrite, MacPaint, and MacProject. In the late 1980s, Claris released a number of revamped software titles; the result was the “Pro” series, including MacPaint Pro, MacDraw Pro, MacWrite Pro, and FileMaker Pro. To provide a complete office suite, Claris purchased the rights to the Informix Wingz spreadsheet on the Mac, renaming it Claris Resolve, and added the new presentation software Claris Impact. By the early 1990s, Claris applications were shipping with the majority of consumer-level Macintoshes and were extremely popular. In 1991, Claris released ClarisWorks, which soon became their second best-selling application. When Claris was reincorporated back into Apple in 1998, ClarisWorks was renamed AppleWorks beginning with version 5.0.[38] The Macintosh Portable was Apple's first battery-powered Macintosh. It was available from 1989 to 1991 and could run System 6 and System 7. In 1988, Apple sued Microsoft and Hewlett-Packard on the grounds that they infringed Apple’s copyrighted GUI, citing (among other things) the use of rectangular, overlapping, and resizable windows. After four years, the case was decided against Apple, as were later appeals. Apple’s actions were criticized by some in the software community, including the Free Software Foundation (FSF), who felt Apple was trying to monopolize on GUIs in general, and boycotted GNU software for the Macintosh platform for seven years.[39][40] With the new Motorola 68030 processor came the Macintosh IIx in 1988, which had benefited from internal improvements, including an on-board MMU.[41] It was followed in 1989 by a more compact version with fewer slots (the Macintosh IIcx)[42] and a version of the Mac SE powered by the 16 MHz 68030, the Macintosh SE/30.[43] Later that year, the Macintosh IIci, running at 25 MHz, was the first Mac to be “32-bit clean,” allowing it to natively support more than 8 MB of RAM,[44] unlike its predecessors, which had “32-bit dirty” ROMs (8 of the 32 bits available for addressing were used for OS-level flags). System 7 was the first Macintosh operating system to support 32-bit addressing.[45] Apple also introduced the Macintosh Portable, a 16 MHz 68000 machine with an active matrix flat panel display that was backlit on some models.[46] The following year the Macintosh IIfx, starting at US$9,900, was unveiled. Apart from its fast 40 MHz 68030 processor, it had significant internal architectural improvements, including faster memory and two Apple II CPUs dedicated to I/O processing.[47] 1990 to 1998: Growth and decline The Macintosh Classic, Apple's early 1990s budget model. The PowerBook 100 (shown here), 140 and 170 introduced a line of professional laptop Macs. They pioneered notebook ergonomics by placing the keyboard behind a palm rest. Microsoft Windows 3.0, which began to approach the Macintosh operating system in both performance and feature set,[citation needed] was released in May 1990 and was a less expensive alternative to the Macintosh platform. Apple's response was to introduce a range of relatively inexpensive Macs in October 1990. The Macintosh Classic, essentially a less expensive version of the Macintosh Plus, was the least expensive Mac until early 2001.[48] The 68020-powered Macintosh LC, in its distinctive “pizza box” case, offered color graphics and was accompanied by a new, low-cost 512 × 384 pixel monitor.[49] The Macintosh IIsi was essentially a 20 MHz IIci with only one expansion slot.[50] All three machines sold well,[51] although Apple’s profit margin was considerably lower than on earlier machines.[48] System 7 was the first major upgrade of the Macintosh operating system. OS 8 was the second major upgrade of the Mac OS. OS 8.6 shown. Apple improved Macintosh computers by introducing models equipped with newly-available processors from the 68k lineup. The Macintosh Classic II[52] and Macintosh LC II, which used a 16 MHz 68030 CPU,[53] were joined in 1991 by the Macintosh Quadra 700[54] and 900,[55] the first Macs to employ the faster Motorola 68040 processor. In 1994, Apple abandoned Motorola CPUs for the RISC PowerPC architecture developed by the AIM alliance of Apple Computer, IBM, and Motorola.[56] The Power Macintosh line, the first to use the new chips, proved to be highly successful, with over a million PowerPC units sold in nine months.[57] Apple replaced the Macintosh Portable in 1991 with the first of the PowerBook line: the PowerBook 100, a miniaturized Portable; the 16 MHz 68030 PowerBook 140; and the 25 MHz 68030 PowerBook 170.[58] They were the first portable computers with the keyboard behind a palm rest, and with a built-in pointing device (a trackball) in front of the keyboard.[59] The 1993 PowerBook 165c was Apple's first portable computer to feature a color screen, displaying 256 colors with 640 x 400 pixel resolution.[60] The second-generation of PowerBooks, the 68040-equipped 500 series, introduced the trackpad, integrated stereo speakers and built-in Ethernet to the laptop form factor in 1994.[61] As for Mac OS, System 7 was a 32-bit rewrite from Pascal to C++ that introduced virtual memory, and improved the handling of color graphics, memory addressing, networking, and co-operative multitasking. Also during this time, the Macintosh began to shed the "Snow White" design language, along with the expensive consulting fees they were paying to Frogdesign, in favor of bringing the work in-house by establishing the Apple Industrial Design Group. They became responsible for to crafting a new look to go with the new operating system and all other Apple products.[62] Despite these technical and commercial successes, Microsoft and Intel began to rapidly lower Apple's market share with the Windows 95 operating system and Pentium processors respectively. These significantly enhanced the multimedia capability and performance of IBM PC compatible computers, and brought Windows still closer to the Mac GUI. Furthermore, Apple had created too many similar models that confused potential buyers. At one point Apple's product lineup was subdivided into Classic, LC, II, Quadra, Performa, and Centris models, with essentially the same computer being sold under a number of different names.[63] These models competed against the Macintosh clones, hardware manufactured by third-parties that ran Apple's System 7. This succeeded in increasing the Macintosh's market share somewhat and provided cheaper hardware for consumers, but hurt Apple financially as existing Apple customers began to buy cheaper clones. When Steve Jobs returned to Apple in 1997, he ordered that the OS that had been previewed as version 7.7 be branded Mac OS 8 (in place of the never-to-appear Copland OS). Since Apple had licensed only System 7 to third-parties, this move effectively ended the clone line. The decision caused significant financial losses for companies like Motorola, who produced the StarMax, Umax, who produced the SuperMac,[64] and Power Computing Corporation, who offered several lines Mac clones, including PowerWave, PowerTower, and PowerTower Pro.[65] These companies had invested substantial resources in creating their own Mac-compatible hardware.[66] Apple bought out Power Computing's license, but allowed Umax to continue selling Mac clones until their license expired, as they had a sizeable presence in the lower-end segment that Apple did not.[citation needed] 1998 to 2005: New beginnings The original "Bondi Blue" iMac G3. Introduced in 1998, it led Apple's return to profitability. However, the associated mouse proved to be one of consumer's least favorite Apple products.[67] In 1998, a year after Steve Jobs had returned to the company, Apple introduced an all-in-one Macintosh called the iMac. Its translucent plastic case, originally Bondi blue and later many other colors, is considered an industrial design hallmark of the late 1990s. The iMac did away with most of Apple's standard (and usually proprietary) connections, such as SCSI and ADB, in favor of two USB ports. It also had no internal floppy disk drive and instead included a CD-ROM drive for installing software,[3][68] but incapable of writing to CDs or any other media without external third-party hardware. The iMac proved to be phenomenally successful, with 800,000 units sold in 139 days,[69] making the company an annual profit of US$309 million—Apple's first profitable year since Michael Spindler took over as CEO in 1995.[70] The "blue and white" aesthetic was applied to the Power Macintosh, and then to a new product: the iBook. Introduced in July 1999, the iBook was Apple's first consumer-level laptop computer, filling in the "missing square" of Apple's four-tiered consumer/professional laptop/desktop product strategy previously announced by Jobs.[71] More than 140,000 pre-orders were placed before it started shipping in September,[72] and by October it was as much a sales hit as the iMac.[73] In early 2001, Apple began shipping computers with CDRW drives for the first time.[74] Apple had been emphasizing the Mac's ability to play DVDs by including DVD-ROM and DVD-RAM drives as standard. At an earnings warning, Steve Jobs admitted that Apple had been "late to the party" on writable CD technology but felt that Macs could become a "digital hub" that linked and enabled an "emerging digital lifestyle".[75] Apple would later introduce an update to its iTunes music player software that could burn CDs, along with a controversial "Rip, Mix, Burn" advertising campaign that some felt encouraged media piracy.[76] This accompanied the release of the iPod, Apple's first successful handheld device. Apple continued to add new products to their lineup, such as the Power Mac G4 Cube,[77] the eMac for the education market and PowerBook G4 laptop for professionals. The original iMac used a G3 processor, but the G4 and then G5 chips were accompanied by successive new designs, dropping the array of colors in favor of white plastic. Current iMacs use aluminum enclosures. On January 11, 2005, Apple announced the release of the Mac Mini priced at US$499,[78] the least expensive Mac to date.[79] Mac OS continued to evolve up to version 9.2.2, including retrofits such as the addition of a nanokernel and support for Multiprocessing Services 2.0 in Mac OS 8.6.[80] Ultimately its dated architecture made replacement necessary. Initially developed in the Pascal programming language, it was substantially rewritten in C++ for System 7. From its beginnings on a 128k 8 MHz machine, it had grown to support Apple's latest 1 GHz G4-equipped Macs. But since its architecture was laid down, OS features like preemptive multitasking and protected memory had become feasible on the kind of hardware Apple manufactured - features that were already common on Apple's competition. As such, Apple introduced Mac OS X, a fully overhauled Unix-based successor to Mac OS 9, using Darwin, XNU, and Mach as foundations, and based on NEXTSTEP. Mac OS X was not released to the public until September 2000, as the Mac OS X Public Beta, with an Aqua interface. At US$29.99, it allowed adventurous Mac users to sample Apple’s new operating system and provide feedback for the actual release.[81] The initial release of Mac OS X, 10.0 (nicknamed Cheetah), was released on March 24, 2001. Older Mac OS applications could still run under early Mac OS X versions, using an environment called Classic. Subsequent releases of Mac OS X were 10.1 "Puma" (September 25, 2001), 10.2 "Jaguar" (August 24, 2002), 10.3 "Panther" (October 24, 2003), 10.4 "Tiger" (April 29, 2005), 10.5 "Leopard" (October 26, 2007), 10.6 "Snow Leopard" (August 28, 2009), and 10.7 "Lion" scheduled for 2011.[82] Leopard and Snow Leopard each received certification as a Unix implementation by The Open Group.[83][84] 2006 onward: Intel era The MacBook Pro is the first Mac notebook to use an Intel processor. It was released at Macworld 2006.[85] Apple discontinued the use of PowerPC microprocessors in 2006. At WWDC 2005, Steve Jobs revealed this transition and also noted that Mac OS X was in development to run both on Intel and PowerPC architecture from the very beginning.[86] All new Macs now use x86 processors made by Intel, and some Macs were given new names to signify the switch.[87] Intel-based Macs can run pre-existing software developed for PowerPC using an emulator called Rosetta,[88] although at noticeably slower speeds than native programs, and the Classic environment is unavailable. With the release of Intel-based Mac computers, the potential to natively run Windows-based operating systems on Apple hardware without the need for emulation software such as Virtual PC was introduced. In March 2006, a group of hackers announced that they were able to run Windows XP on an Intel-based Mac. The group released their software as open source and has posted it for download on their website.[89] On April 5, 2006 Apple announced the public beta availability of their own Boot Camp software which allows owners of Intel-based Macs to install Windows XP on their machines; later versions added support for Windows Vista. Boot Camp became a standard feature in Mac OS X 10.5, while support for Classic was dropped from PowerPC Macs.[90][91] Apple's recent industrial design has shifted to favor aluminum and glass, which is billed as environmentally friendly.[92] The iMac and MacBook Pro lines use aluminum enclosures, and both are now made of a single unibody.[93][94] Chief designer Jonathan Ive continues to guide products towards a minimalist and simple feel,[95][96] including the elimination of replaceable batteries in notebooks.[97] Multi-touch gestures from the iPhone's interface have been applied to the Mac line in the form of touch pads on notebooks and the Magic Mouse for desktops. In recent years, Apple has seen a significant boost in sales of Macs. Many claim that this is due, in part, to the success of the iPod, a halo effect whereby satisfied iPod owners purchase more Apple equipment.[citation needed] The inclusion of the Intel chips is also a factor. From 2001 to 2008, Mac sales increased continuously on an annual basis. Apple reported sales of 3.36 million Macs during the 2009 holiday season.[98] Timeline of Macintosh models Main article: Timeline of Macintosh models See also: Timeline of Apple II Family and Timeline of Apple Inc. products Product line Main article: Comparison of Macintosh models Compact Consumer Professional Desktop Mac mini Entry-level; ships without keyboard, mouse, or monitor; uses Intel Core 2 Duo processors iMac All-in-one; available in 21.5" and 27" screen sizes; uses Intel Core 2 Duo, Intel Core i5, or Intel Core i7 processors Mac Pro Workstation desktop; highly customizable; uses up to two Intel Xeon 5500 "Gainestown" or Xeon 3500 "Bloomfield" quad-core processors Portable (MacBook) MacBook Air 13.3" ultraportable with aluminum casing; uses Intel Core 2 Duo processors MacBook 13.3" laptop with white polycarbonate casing; uses Intel Core 2 Duo processors MacBook Pro 13.3", 15.4" or 17" models with aluminum casing; uses Intel Core 2 Duo, Intel Core i5, or Intel Core i7 processors Server Mac mini An additional Mac mini configuration without an internal optical drive. Ships with Mac OS X Server installed and two internal 500 GB hard drives for a total of 1 TB of capacity. Xserve 1U rack-mount; uses dual quad-core Intel Xeon processors for up to 8 cores Hardware and software Hardware The internals of the original 20-inch iMac G5. Main article: Macintosh hardware Apple directly sub-contracts hardware production to Asian original equipment manufacturers such as Asus, maintaining a high degree of control over the end product. By contrast, most other companies (including Microsoft) create software that can be run on hardware produced by a variety of third-parties, like Dell, HP/Compaq, and Lenovo. Consequently, the Macintosh buyer has comparably fewer options. The current Mac product family uses Intel x86-64 processors. Apple introduced an emulator during the transition from PowerPC chips (called Rosetta), much as it did during the transition from Motorola 68000 architecture a decade earlier. The Macintosh is the only mainstream computer platform to have successfully transitioned to a new CPU architecture,[99] and has done so twice. All current Mac models ship with at least 2 GB RAM as standard. Current Mac computers use ATI Radeon or nVidia GeForce graphics cards. All current Macs (except for the MacBook Air) ship with an optical media drive that includes a dual-function DVD and CD burner, called the SuperDrive. Macs include two standard data transfer ports: USB and FireWire (except for the MacBook Air and MacBook, which do not include FireWire). USB was introduced in the 1998 iMac G3 and is ubiquitous today,[3] while FireWire is mainly reserved for high-performance devices such as hard drives or video cameras. Starting with a new iMac G5 released in October 2005, Apple started to include built-in iSight cameras to appropriate models, and a media center interface called Front Row that can be operated by an Apple Remote or keyboard for accessing media stored on the computer.[100] Apple was initially reluctant to embrace mice with multiple buttons and scroll wheels. Macs did not natively support multiple buttons, even from third parties, until Mac OS X arrived in 2001.[101] Apple continued to offer only single button mice, with wired and Bluetooth wireless versions, until August 2005, when it introduced the Mighty Mouse. While it looked like a traditional one-button mouse, it actually had four buttons and a scroll ball, capable of independent x- and y-axis movement.[102] A Bluetooth version followed in July 2006.[103] In October 2009, Apple introduced the Magic Mouse which uses multi-touch gesture recognition similar to the iPhone instead of a physical scroll wheel or ball.[104] It is available only in Bluetooth, and the Mighty Mouse (re-branded as "Apple Mouse") is available with a cord. Software Main articles: Mac OS, History of Mac OS, and Mac OS X The original Macintosh was the first successful personal computer to use a graphical user interface devoid of a command line. It used a desktop metaphor, depicting real-world objects like documents and a trashcan as icons onscreen. The System software introduced in 1984 with the first Macintosh and renamed Mac OS in 1997, continued to evolve until version 9.2.2. In 2001, Apple introduced Mac OS X, based on Darwin and NEXTSTEP; its new features included the Dock and the Aqua user interface. During the transition, Apple included an emulator known as Classic allowing users to run Mac OS 9 applications under Mac OS X, version 10.4 and earlier on PowerPC machines. The most recent version is Mac OS X v10.6 "Snow Leopard." In addition to Snow Leopard, all new Macs are bundled with assorted Apple-produced applications, including iLife, the Safari web browser and the iTunes media player. Mac OS X enjoys a near-absence of the types of malware and spyware that affect Microsoft Windows users.[105][106][107] Mac OS X has a smaller usage share compared to Microsoft Windows (roughly 5% and 92%, respectively),[108] but it also has secure UNIX roots. Worms as well as potential vulnerabilities were noted in February 2006, which led some industry analysts and anti-virus companies to issue warnings that Apple's Mac OS X is not immune to malware.[109] Apple routinely issues security updates for its software.[110] Originally, the hardware architecture was so closely tied to the Mac OS operating system that it was impossible to boot an alternative operating system. The most common workaround, used even by Apple for A/UX, was to boot into Mac OS and then to hand over control to a program that took over the system and acted as a boot loader. This technique was no longer necessary with the introduction of Open Firmware-based PCI Macs, though it was formerly used for convenience on many Old World ROM systems due to bugs in the firmware implementation.[citation needed] Now, Mac hardware boots directly from Open Firmware (most PowerPC-based Macs) or EFI (all Intel-based Macs), and Macs are no longer limited to running just Mac OS X. Following the release of the Intel-based Mac, third-party platform virtualization software such as Parallels Desktop, VMware Fusion, and VirtualBox began to emerge. These programs allow users to run Microsoft Windows or previously Windows-only software on Macs at near native speed. Apple also released Boot Camp and Mac-specific Windows drivers, which help users to install Windows XP or Vista and natively dual boot between Mac OS X and Windows. Though not condoned by Apple, it is possible to run the Linux operating system using Boot camp or other virtualization workarounds.[111][112][113] Because Mac OS X is a UNIX system, borrowing heavily from FreeBSD, many applications written for Linux or BSD run on Mac OS X, often using X11. Apple's smaller market share than Microsoft's means that a smaller range of shareware is available, but many popular commercial software applications from large developers such as Microsoft Office and Adobe Photoshop are ported to both Mac OS and Windows. And much of open source software like the Firefox web browser and the OpenOffice.org office suite are cross-platform and run natively. Advertising Main article: Apple Inc. advertising Macintosh advertisements have usually attacked the established market leader, directly or indirectly. They tend to portray the Mac as an alternative to overly complex or unreliable PCs. Apple hyped the introduction of the original Mac with their 1984 commercial, which aired during the Super Bowl.[114] It was supplemented by a number of printed pamphlets and other TV ads demonstrating the new interface and emphasizing the mouse. Many more brochures for new models like the Macintosh Plus and the Performa followed. In the 1990s, Apple started the “What's on your PowerBook?” campaign, with print ads and television commercials featuring celebrities describing how the PowerBook helps them in their businesses and everyday lives. In 1995, Apple responded to the introduction of Windows 95 with several print ads and a television commercial demonstrating its disadvantages and lack of innovation. In 1997 the Think Different campaign introduced Apple’s new slogan, and in 2002 the Switch campaign followed. The most recent advertising strategy by Apple is the Get a Mac campaign, with North American, UK and Japanese variants.[115][116] Today, Apple introduces new products at “special events” at the Apple Town Hall auditorium, and keynotes at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference, and (formerly) trade shows like the Apple Expo and the MacWorld Expo. The events typically draw a large gathering of media representatives and spectators, and are preceded by speculation about possible new products. In the past, special events have been used to unveil its desktop and notebook computers such as the iMac and MacBook, and other consumer electronic devices like the iPod, Apple TV, and iPhone, as well as provide updates on sales and market share statistics. Apple has begun to focus its advertising on its retail stores instead of these trade shows; the last MacWorld keynote was in 2009.[117] Market share and user demographics Since the introduction of the Macintosh, Apple has struggled to gain a significant share of the personal computer market. At first, the Macintosh 128K suffered from a dearth of available software compared to IBM's PC, resulting in disappointing sales in 1984 and 1985. It took 74 days for 50,000 units to sell.[118] Market share is measured by browser hits, sales and installed base. If using the browser metric, Mac market share has increased substantially in 2007.[119] If measuring market share by installed base, there were more than 20 million Mac users by 1997, compared to an installed base of around 340 million Windows PCs.[120][121] Statistics from late 2003 indicate that Apple had 2.06 percent of the desktop share in the United States, which had increased to 2.88 percent by Q4 2004.[122] As of October 2006, research firms IDC and Gartner reported that Apple's market share in the U.S. had increased to about 6 percent.[123] Figures from December 2006, showing a market share around 6 percent (IDC) and 6.1 percent (Gartner) are based on a more than 30 percent increase in unit sale from 2005 to 2006. The installed base of Mac computers is hard to determine, with numbers ranging from 5% (estimated in 2009)[124] to 16% (estimated in 2005).[125] Mac OS X’s share of the OS market increased from 7.31% in December 2007 to 9.63% in December 2008, which is a 32% increase in market share during 2008, compared to a 22% increase during 2007. Whether the size of the Mac’s market share and installed base is relevant, and to whom, is a hotly debated issue. Industry pundits have often called attention to the Mac’s relatively small market share to predict Apple's impending doom, particularly in the early and mid 1990s when the company’s future seemed bleakest. Others argue that market share is the wrong way to judge the Mac’s success. Apple has positioned the Mac as a higher-end personal computer, and so it may be misleading to compare it to a budget PC.[126] Because the overall market for personal computers has grown rapidly, the Mac’s increasing sales numbers are effectively swamped by the industry’s expanding sales volume as a whole. Apple’s small market share, then, gives the impression that fewer people are using Macs than did ten years ago, when exactly the opposite is true.[127] Soaring sales of the iPhone and iPad mean that the portion of Apple's profits represented by the Macintosh has declined in 2010, dropping to 24% from 46% two years earlier.[128] Others try to de-emphasize market share, citing that it is rarely brought up in other industries.[129] Regardless of the Mac’s market share, Apple has remained profitable since Steve Jobs’ return and the company’s subsequent reorganization.[130] Notably, a report published in the first quarter of 2008 found that Apple had a 14% market share in the personal computer market in the US, including 66% of all computers over $1,000.[131] Market research indicates that Apple draws its customer base from a higher-income demographic than the mainstream personal computer market.[132] See also Book:Apple Inc. 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Retrieved 2006-04-24.[dead link] ^ "Nearly 600 Million Computers-in-Use in Year 2000". Computer Industry Almanac Inc. 1998-11-03. Retrieved 2006-06-01. ^ Dalrymple, Jim (2005-04-20). "Apple desktop market share on the rise; will the Mac mini, iPod help?". Macworld. Retrieved 2006-04-24. ^ Dalrymple, Jim (2006-10-19). "Apple's Mac market share tops 5% with over 30% growth". Macworld. Retrieved 2006-12-22. ^ "Operating System Market Share". Hitslink. July 2009. Retrieved 2009-08-27. ^ MacDailyNews (2005-06-15). "16% of computer users are unaffected by viruses, malware because they use Apple Macs". Retrieved 2006-04-24. ^ Gruber, John (2003-07-23). "Market Share". Daring Fireball. Retrieved 2006-04-24. ^ Brockmeier, Joe (2003-05-13). "What Will It Take To Put Apple Back on Top?". NewsFactor Magazine online. Retrieved 2006-04-24.[dead link] ^ "Despite growing sales, Mac's share of Apple profits wanes". ^ Toporek, Chuck (2001-08-22). "Apple, Market Share, and Who Cares?". O'Reilly macdevcenter.com. Retrieved 2006-04-24. ^ Spero, Ricky (2004-07-14). "Apple Posts Profit of $61 million; Revenue Jumps 30%". The Mac Observer. Retrieved 2006-04-24. ^ Wilcox, Joe. "Macs Defy Windows' Gravity". Apple Watch. Retrieved 2008-05-19. ^ Fried, Ian (July 12, 2002). "Are Mac users smarter?". news.com. Retrieved 2006-04-24. References Apple & Raskin, Jef (1992). Macintosh Human Interface Guidelines. Addison-Wesley Professional. ISBN 0-201-62216-5. Apple. "Press release Library". Retrieved 2007-11-18. Deutschman, Alan (2001). The Second Coming of Steve Jobs. Broadway. ISBN 0-7679-0433-8. Hertzfeld, Andy. "folklore.org: Macintosh stories". Retrieved 2006-04-24. Hertzfeld, Andy (2004). Revolution in the Valley. O'Reilly Books. ISBN 0-596-00719-1. Kahney, Leander (2004). The Cult of Mac. No Starch Press. ISBN 1-886411-83-2. Kawasaki, Guy (1989). The Macintosh Way. Scott Foresman Trade. ISBN 0-673-46175-0. Kelby, Scott (2002). Macintosh... The Naked Truth. New Riders Press. ISBN 0-7357-1284-0. Knight, Dan (2005). "Macintosh History: 1984". Retrieved 2006-04-24. Levy, Steven (2000). Insanely Great: The Life and Times of Macintosh, the Computer That Changed Everything. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-029177-6. Linzmayer, Owen (2004). Apple Confidential 2.0. No Starch Press. ISBN 1-59327-010-0. Page, Ian (2007). "MacTracker Macintosh model database 4.3.1". Retrieved 2007-11-31. Sanford, Glen (2006). "Apple History". Retrieved 2006-04-24. Singh, Amit (2005). "A History of Apple's Operating Systems". Retrieved 2006-04-24. iPod From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia iPod The current iPod line; from left to right: iPod Shuffle, iPod Nano, iPod Classic, iPod Touch. Developer Apple Inc. Manufacturer Foxconn (OEM)[1] Type Portable Media Player (PMP) Retail availability October 23, 2001-present (first launched) Units sold Over 260,000,000 worldwide as of April 2010 (see chart below) CPU Samsung ARM Online services iTunes Music Store, App Store, iBooks, MobileMe (online services available only on iPod Touch) This article is outdated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. Please see the talk page for more information. (September 2010) iPod is a portable media player designed and marketed by Apple and launched on October 23, 2001. The product line-up currently consists of the hard drive-based iPod Classic, the touchscreen iPod Touch, the iPod Nano, and the compact iPod Shuffle. iPod Classic models store media on an internal hard drive, while all other models use flash memory to enable their smaller size (the discontinued Mini used a Microdrive miniature hard drive). As with many other digital music players, iPods can also serve as external data storage devices. Storage capacity varies by model, ranging from 2 GB for the iPod Shuffle to 160 GB for the iPod Classic. All of the models have been redesigned multiple times since their introduction. The most recent iPod redesigns were introduced on September 1, 2010. Apple's iTunes software can be used to transfer music to the devices from computers using certain versions of Apple Macintosh and Microsoft Windows operating systems.[2] For users who choose not to use iTunes or whose computers cannot run iTunes, several open source alternatives are available for the iPod.[3] iTunes and its alternatives may also transfer photos, videos, games, contact information, e-mail settings, Web bookmarks, and calendars to iPod models supporting those features. The iPod branding is also used for the media player applications included with the iPhone and iPad; the iPhone version is essentially a combination of the Music and Videos apps on the iPod Touch. Both devices can therefore function as iPods, but they are generally treated as separate products. Discontinued models of the line include the iPod Mini and the iPod Photo, which was since reintergrated into the iPod Classic. Contents [hide] 1 History and design 1.1 Trademark 2 Software 2.1 User interface 2.2 iTunes Store 2.2.1 Games 2.3 File storage and transfer 3 Hardware 3.1 Connectivity 3.2 Accessories 3.3 Audio performance 4 Models 5 Timeline of iPod models 6 Patent disputes 7 Sales 8 Industry impact 9 Criticism 9.1 Battery problems 9.2 Reliability and durability 9.3 Allegations of worker exploitation 10 See also 11 References 12 External links History and design Various iPod models, all of which have been discontinued. The iPod line came from Apple's "digital hub" category,[4] when the company began creating software for the growing market of personal digital devices. Digital cameras, camcorders and organizers had well-established mainstream markets, but the company found existing digital music players "big and clunky or small and useless" with user interfaces that were "unbelievably awful,"[4] so Apple decided to develop its own. As ordered by CEO Steve Jobs, Apple's hardware engineering chief Jon Rubinstein assembled a team of engineers to design the iPod line, including hardware engineers Tony Fadell and Michael Dhuey,[5] and design engineer Jonathan Ive.[4] The product was developed in less than one year and unveiled on 23 October 2001. Jobs announced it as a Mac-compatible product with a 5 GB hard drive that put "1,000 songs in your pocket."[6] Apple did not develop the iPod software entirely in-house, instead using PortalPlayer's reference platform based on two ARM cores. The platform had rudimentary software running on a commercial microkernel embedded operating system. PortalPlayer had previously been working on an IBM-branded MP3 player with Bluetooth headphones.[4] Apple contracted another company, Pixo, to help design and implement the user interface under the direct supervision of Steve Jobs.[4] As development progressed, Apple continued to refine the software's look and feel. Starting with the iPod Mini, the Chicago font was replaced with Espy Sans. Later iPods switched fonts again to Podium Sans—a font similar to Apple's corporate font, Myriad. iPods with color displays then adopted some Mac OS X themes like Aqua progress bars, and brushed metal meant to evoke a combination lock. In 2007, Apple modified the iPod interface again with the introduction of the sixth-generation iPod Classic and third-generation iPod Nano by changing the font to Helvetica and, in most cases, splitting the screen in half by displaying the menus on the left and album artwork, photos, or videos on the right (whichever was appropriate for the selected item). In September 2007, during a lawsuit with patent holding company Burst.com, Apple drew attention to a patent for a similar device that was developed in 1979. Kane Kramer applied for a UK patent for his design of a "plastic music box" in 1981, which he called the IXI.[7] He was unable to secure funding to renew the US$ 120,000 worldwide patent, so it lapsed and Kramer never profited from his idea.[7] Trademark See also: Timeline of Apple Inc. products The name iPod was proposed by Vinnie Chieco, a freelance copywriter, who (with others) was called by Apple to figure out how to introduce the new player to the public. After Chieco saw a prototype, he thought of the movie 2001: A Space Odyssey and the phrase "Open the pod bay door, Hal!", which refers to the white EVA Pods of the Discovery One spaceship. Chieco saw an analogy to the relationship between the spaceship and the smaller independent pods in the relationship between a personal computer and the music player.[4] Apple researched the trademark and found that it was already in use. Joseph N. Grasso of New Jersey had originally listed an "iPod" trademark with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) in July 2000 for Internet kiosks. The first iPod kiosks had been demonstrated to the public in New Jersey in March 1998, and commercial use began in January 2000, but had apparently been discontinued by 2001. The trademark was registered by the USPTO in November 2003, and Grasso assigned it to Apple Computer, Inc. in 2005.[8] The earliest recorded use in commerce of an "ipod" trademark was in 1991 by Chrysalis Corp. of Sturgis, Michigan, styled "iPOD".[9] Software The iPod line can play several audio file formats including MP3, AAC/M4A, Protected AAC, AIFF, WAV, Audible audiobook, and Apple Lossless. The iPod Photo introduced the ability to display JPEG, BMP, GIF, TIFF, and PNG image file formats. Fifth and sixth generation iPod Classics, as well as third generation iPod Nanos, can additionally play MPEG-4 (H.264/MPEG-4 AVC) and QuickTime video formats, with restrictions on video dimensions, encoding techniques and data-rates.[10] Originally, iPod software only worked with Mac OS; iPod software for Microsoft Windows was launched with the second generation model.[11] Unlike most other media players, Apple does not support Microsoft's WMA audio format—but a converter for WMA files without Digital Rights Management (DRM) is provided with the Windows version of iTunes. MIDI files also cannot be played, but can be converted to audio files using the "Advanced" menu in iTunes. Alternative open-source audio formats, such as Ogg Vorbis and FLAC, are not supported without installing custom firmware onto an iPod (e.g. Rockbox). During installation, an iPod is associated with one host computer. Each time an iPod connects to its host computer, iTunes can synchronize entire music libraries or music playlists either automatically or manually. Song ratings can be set on an iPod and synchronized later to the iTunes library, and vice versa. A user can access, play, and add music on a second computer if an iPod is set to manual and not automatic sync, but anything added or edited will be reversed upon connecting and syncing with the main computer and its library. If a user wishes to automatically sync music with another computer, an iPod's library will be entirely wiped and replaced with the other computer's library. User interface The signature iPod click wheel. iPods with color displays use anti-aliased graphics and text, with sliding animations. All iPods (except the 3rd-generation iPod shuffle and iPod Touch) have five buttons and the later generations have the buttons integrated into the click wheel — an innovation that gives an uncluttered, minimalist interface. The buttons perform basic functions such as menu, play, pause, next track, and previous track. Other operations, such as scrolling through menu items and controlling the volume, are performed by using the click wheel in a rotational manner. The 3rd-generation iPod Shuffle does not have any controls on the actual player; instead it has a small control on the earphone cable, with volume-up and -down buttons and a single button for play and pause, next track, etc. The iPod Touch has no click-wheel; instead it uses a 3.5" touch screen along with a home button, sleep/wake button and (on the second and third generations of the iPod touch) volume-up and -down buttons. The user interface for the iPod Touch is almost identical to that of the iPhone. Differences include a lack of a phone application and separate apps for viewing music and video content. Both devices use iOS. iTunes Store Main articles: iTunes and iTunes Store The iTunes Store (introduced 29 April 2003) is an online media store run by Apple and accessed through iTunes. The store became the market leader soon after its launch[12] and Apple announced the sale of videos through the store on 12 October 2005. Full-length movies became available on 12 September 2006.[13] At the time the store was introduced, purchased audio files used the AAC format with added encryption, based on the FairPlay DRM system. Up to five authorized computers and an unlimited number of iPods could play the files. Burning the files with iTunes as an audio CD, then re-importing would create music files without the DRM. The DRM could also be removed using third-party software. However, in a deal with Apple, EMI began selling DRM-free, higher-quality songs on the iTunes Stores, in a category called "iTunes Plus." While individual songs were made available at a cost of US$1.29, 30¢ more than the cost of a regular DRM song, entire albums were available for the same price, US$9.99, as DRM encoded albums. On 17 October 2007, Apple lowered the cost of individual iTunes Plus songs to US$0.99 per song, the same as DRM encoded tracks. On January 6, 2009, Apple announced that DRM has been removed from 80% of the music catalog, and that it would be removed from all music by April 2009. iPods cannot play music files from competing music stores that use rival-DRM technologies like Microsoft's protected WMA or RealNetworks' Helix DRM. Example stores include Napster and MSN Music. RealNetworks claims that Apple is creating problems for itself[14] by using FairPlay to lock users into using the iTunes Store. Steve Jobs has stated that Apple makes little profit from song sales, although Apple uses the store to promote iPod sales.[15] However, iPods can also play music files from online stores that do not use DRM, such as eMusic or Amie Street. Universal Music Group decided not to renew their contract with the iTunes Music Store on 3 July 2007. Universal will now supply iTunes in an 'at will' capacity.[16] Apple debuted the iTunes Wi-Fi Music Store on 5 September 2007, in its Media Event entitled "The Beat Goes On..." This service allows users to access the Music Store from either an iPhone or an iPod Touch and download songs directly to the device that can be synced to the user's iTunes Library over a WiFi connection, or, in the case of a iPhone, the telephone network. Games Main articles: iPod game and App Store Video games are playable on various versions of iPods. The original iPod had the game Brick (originally invented by Apple's co-founder Steve Wozniak) included as an easter egg hidden feature; later firmware versions added it as a menu option. Later revisions of the iPod added three more games: Parachute, Solitaire, and Music Quiz. In September 2006 the iTunes Store began to offer additional games for purchase with the launch of iTunes 7, compatible with the fifth generation iPod with iPod software 1.2 or later. Those games were: Bejeweled, Cubis 2, Mahjong, Mini Golf, Pac-Man, Tetris, Texas Hold 'Em, Vortex, Asphalt 4: Elite Racing and Zuma. Additional games have since been added. These games work on the 6th and 5th generation iPod classic and the 5th and 4th generation iPod nano. With third parties like Namco, Square Enix, Electronic Arts, Sega, and Hudson Soft all making games for the iPod, Apple's MP3 player has taken great steps towards entering the video game handheld console market.[neutrality is disputed] Even video game magazines like GamePro and EGM have reviewed and rated most of their games as of late.[17] The games are in the form of .ipg files, which are actually .zip archives in disguise[citation needed]. When unzipped, they reveal executable files along with common audio and image files, leading to the possibility of third party games. Apple has not publicly released a software development kit (SDK) for iPod-specific development.[18] Apps produced with the iPhone SDK are compatible only with the iOS on the iPod Touch and iPhone, which cannot run clickwheel-based games. File storage and transfer All iPods except for the iPod Touch can function in "disk mode" as mass storage devices to store data files[19] but this may not be the default behavior, and in the case of the iPod Touch, requires special software.[20] If an iPod is formatted on a Mac OS X computer, it uses the HFS+ file system format, which allows it to serve as a boot disk for a Mac computer.[21] If it is formatted on Windows, the FAT32 format is used. With the release of the Windows-compatible iPod, the default file system used on the iPod line switched from HFS+ to FAT32, although it can be reformatted to either file system (excluding the iPod Shuffle which is strictly FAT32). Generally, if a new iPod (excluding the iPod Shuffle) is initially plugged into a computer running Windows, it will be formatted with FAT32, and if initially plugged into a Mac running Mac OS X it will be formatted with HFS+.[22] Unlike many other MP3 players, simply copying audio or video files to the drive with a typical file management application will not allow an iPod to properly access them. The user must use software that has been specifically designed to transfer media files to iPods, so that the files are playable and viewable. Usually iTunes is used to transfer media to an iPod, though several alternative third-party applications are available on a number of different platforms. iTunes 7 and above can transfer purchased media of the iTunes Store from an iPod to a computer, provided that computer containing the DRM protected media is authorized to play it. Media files are stored on an iPod in a hidden folder, along with a proprietary database file. The hidden content can be accessed on the host operating system by enabling hidden files to be shown. The media files can then be recovered manually by copying the files or folders off the iPod. Many third-party applications also allow easy copying of media files off of an iPod. Hardware Chipsets and Electronics Chipset or Electronic Product(s) Component(s) Microcontroller iPod Classic first to third generations Two ARM 7TDMI-derived CPUs running at 90 MHz iPod Classic fourth and fifth generations, iPod Mini, iPod Nano first generation Variable-speed ARM 7TDMI CPUs, running at a peak of 80 MHz to save battery life iPod Nano second generation Samsung System-on-a-chip, based around an ARM processor.[23][24] iPod Shuffle first generation SigmaTel STMP3550 chip that handles both the music decoding and the audio circuitry.[25] Audio Chip All iPods (except the iPod Shuffle, 6G Classic and 2G Touch) [26] Audio Codecs developed by Wolfson Microelectronics Sixth-generation iPod Classic Cirrus Logic Audio Codec Chip Storage Medium iPod Classic 45.7 mm (1.8 in) hard drives (ATA-6, 4200 rpm with proprietary connectors) made by Toshiba iPod Mini 25.4 mm (1 in) Microdrive by Hitachi and Seagate iPod Nano Flash Memory from Samsung, Toshiba, and others iPod Shuffle and Touch Flash Memory Batteries iPod Classic first and second generation, Shuffle Internal Lithium Polymer Batteries iPod Classic 3G onward, iPod Mini, iPod Nano, iPod Touch, fourth generation iPod Shuffle (including maybe earlier) Internal Lithium-Ion Batteries Display iPod Nano 1.54-inch (diagonal) Multi-Touch, 240-by-240 resolution at 220 pixels per inch[27] iPod Classic 2.5-inch (diagonal) color LCD with LED backlight, 320-by-240 resolution at 163 pixels per inch[28] iPod Touch 3.5-inch (diagonal) widescreen Multi-Touch, 960-by-640 resolution at 326 pixels per inch[29] Connectivity See also: iPod dock connector Four iPod wall chargers for North America, all made by Apple. These have FireWire (left) and USB (right three) connectors, which allow iPods to charge without a computer. The units have been miniaturized over time. Originally, a FireWire connection to the host computer was used to update songs or recharge the battery. The battery could also be charged with a power adapter that was included with the first four generations. The third generation began including a 30-pin dock connector, allowing for FireWire or USB connectivity. This provided better compatibility with non-Apple machines, as most of them did not have FireWire ports at the time. Eventually Apple began shipping iPods with USB cables instead of FireWire, although the latter was available separately. As of the first-generation iPod Nano and the fifth-generation iPod Classic, Apple discontinued using FireWire for data transfer (while still allowing for use of FireWire to charge the device) in an attempt to reduce cost and form factor. As of the second-generation iPod Touch and the fourth-generation iPod Nano, FireWire charging ability has been removed. The second-, third-, and fifth-generation iPod Shuffle uses a single 3.5 mm jack which acts as both a headphone jack and a data port for the dock. The dock connector also allowed the iPod to connect to accessories, which often supplement the iPod's music, video, and photo playback. Apple sells a few accessories, such as the now-discontinued iPod Hi-Fi, but most are manufactured by third parties such as Belkin and Griffin. Some peripherals use their own interface, while others use the iPod's own screen. Because the dock connector is a proprietary interface, the implementation of the interface requires paying royalties to Apple.[30] Accessories The "Made for iPod" logo found on most classic iPod accessories Many accessories have been made for the iPod line. A large number are made by third party companies, although many, such as the late iPod Hi-Fi, are made by Apple. Some accessories add extra features that other music players have, such as sound recorders, FM radio tuners, wired remote controls, and audio/visual cables for TV connections. Other accessories offer unique features like the Nike+iPod pedometer and the iPod Camera Connector. Other notable accessories include external speakers, wireless remote controls, protective case, screen films, and wireless earphones.[31] Among the first accessory manufacturers were Griffin Technology, Belkin, JBL, Bose, Monster Cable, and SendStation. Two designs of iPod earphones. The current version is shown on the right. BMW released the first iPod automobile interface,[32] allowing drivers of newer BMW vehicles to control an iPod using either the built-in steering wheel controls or the radio head-unit buttons. Apple announced in 2005 that similar systems would be available for other vehicle brands, including Mercedes-Benz,[33] Volvo,[34] Nissan, Toyota,[35] Alfa Romeo, Ferrari,[36] Acura, Audi, Honda,[37] Renault, Infiniti[38] and Volkswagen.[39] Scion offers standard iPod connectivity on all their cars. Some independent stereo manufacturers including JVC, Pioneer, Kenwood, Alpine, Sony, and Harman Kardon also have iPod-specific integration solutions. Alternative connection methods include adaptor kits (that use the cassette deck or the CD changer port), audio input jacks, and FM transmitters such as the iTrip—although personal FM transmitters are illegal in some countries. Many car manufacturers have added audio input jacks as standard.[40] Beginning in mid-2007, four major airlines, United, Continental, Delta, and Emirates, reached agreements to install iPod seat connections. The free service will allow passengers to power and charge an iPod, and view video and music libraries on individual seat-back displays.[41] Originally KLM and Air France were reported to be part of the deal with Apple, but they later released statements explaining that they were only contemplating the possibility of incorporating such systems.[42] Audio performance The third-generation iPod had a weak bass response, as shown in audio tests.[43][44] The combination of the undersized DC-blocking capacitors and the typical low-impedance of most consumer headphones form a high-pass filter, which attenuates the low-frequency bass output. Similar capacitors were used in the fourth-generation iPods.[45] The problem is reduced when using high-impedance headphones and is completely masked when driving high-impedance (line level) loads, such as an external headphone amplifier. The first-generation iPod Shuffle uses a dual-transistor output stage,[43] rather than a single capacitor-coupled output, and does not exhibit reduced bass response for any load. From the fifth-generation iPod on, Apple introduced a user-configurable volume limit in response to concerns about hearing loss.[46] Users report that in the sixth-generation iPod, the maximum volume output level is limited to 100 dB in EU markets. Apple previously had to remove iPods from shelves in France for exceeding this legal limit.[47] Models Main article: List of iPod models Model Generation Image Capacity Connection Original release date Minimum OS to sync Rated battery life (hours) Classic first 5, 10 GB FireWire 23 October 2001 Mac: 9, 10.1 audio: 10 First model, with mechanical scroll wheel. 10 GB model released later. second 10, 20 GB FireWire 17 July 2002 Mac: 10.1 Win: 2000 audio: 10 Touch-sensitive wheel. FireWire port had a cover. Hold switch revised. Windows compatibility through Musicmatch. third 10, 15, 20, 30, 40 GB FireWire (USB for syncing only) 28 April 2003 Mac: 10.1 Win: 2000 audio: 8 First complete redesign with all-touch interface, dock connector, and slimmer case. Musicmatch support dropped with later release of iTunes 4.1 for Windows. fourth (Photo) (Color) 20, 40 GB FireWire or USB 19 July 2004 Mac: 10.2 Win: 2000 audio: 12 Adopted Click Wheel from iPod Mini, hold switch redesigned. photo: 30, 40, 60 GB FireWire or USB 26 October 2004 Mac: 10.2 Win: 2000 audio: 15 slideshow: 5 color: 20, 60 GB 28 June 2005 Premium spin-off of 4G iPod with color screen and picture viewing. Later re-integrated into main iPod line. fifth 30, 60, 80,160 GB USB (FireWire for charging only) 12 October 2005 Mac: 10.3 Win: 2000 30 GB audio: 14 video: 2 (later 3.5) 60/80 GB audio: 20 video: 3/6.5 Second full redesign with a slimmer case, and larger screen with video playback. Offered in black or white. Hardware and firmware updated with 60 GB model replaced with 80 GB model on 12 September 2006. sixth 80, 120, 160 GB USB (FireWire for charging only) 5 September 2007 Mac: 10.4 Win: XP 80 GB audio: 30 video: 5 120 GB audio: 36 video: 6 160 GB 2007 model audio: 40 video: 7 2009 model audio: 36 video: 6 Introduced the "Classic" suffix. New interface and anodized aluminum front plate. Silver replaces white. In September 2008 the hardware and firmware was updated with a 120 GB model replacing the 80 GB model and the 160 GB model was discontinued. In September 2009 the 120GB model was replaced with a 160GB model. Mini first 4 GB USB or FireWire 6 January 2004 Mac: 10.1 Win: 2000 audio: 8 New smaller model, available in 5 colors. Introduced the "Click Wheel". second 4, 6 GB USB or FireWire 22 February 2005 Mac: 10.2 Win: 2000 audio: 18 Brighter color variants with longer battery life. Click Wheel lettering matched body color. Gold color discontinued. Later replaced by iPod Nano. Nano first 1, 2, 4 GB USB (FireWire for charging only) 7 September 2005 Mac: 10.3 Win: 2000 audio: 14 slideshow: 4 Replaced Mini. Available in black or white and used flash memory. Color screen for picture viewing. 1 GB version released later. second 2, 4, 8 GB USB (FireWire for charging only) 12 September 2006 Mac: 10.3 Win: 2000 audio: 24 slideshow: 5 Anodized aluminum casing and 6 colors available. third 4, 8 GB USB (FireWire for charging only) 5 September 2007 Mac: 10.4 Win: XP audio: 24 video: 5 2" QVGA screen, colors refreshed with chrome back, new interface, video capability, smaller Click Wheel. fourth 4, 8, 16 GB USB 9 September 2008 Mac: 10.4 Win: XP audio: 24 video: 4 Revert to tall form and all-aluminum enclosure with 9 color choices, added accelerometer for shake and horizontal viewing. 4 GB model limited release in select markets. fifth 8, 16 GB USB 9 September 2009 Mac: 10.4 Win: XP audio: 24 video: 5 First iPod to include a video camera; also included a larger screen, an FM radio, a speaker, a pedometer, and a polished exterior case while retaining the similar colors as the fourth generation model. sixth 8, 16 GB USB 1 September 2010 Mac: 10.5 Win: XP audio: 24 First iPod nano to include multi-touch screen; clip from iPod shuffle added. Video playback and camera removed. Shuffle first 512 MB, 1 GB USB (no adaptor required) 11 January 2005 Mac: 10.2 Win: 2000 audio: 12 New entry-level model. Uses flash memory and has no screen. second 1, 2 GB USB 12 September 2006 Mac: 10.3 Win: 2000 audio: 12 Smaller clip design with anodized aluminum casing. 4 color options added later. Colors were later refreshed twice. third 2, 4 GB USB 11 March 2009 Mac: 10.4 Win: XP audio: 10 Smaller design with controls relocated to right earbud cable. Introduced with two colors, and features VoiceOver. More colors and 2GB model added in September 2009. fourth 2 GB USB 1 September 2010 Mac: 10.5 Win: XP audio: 15 Controls returned to the body of the iPod. Introduced with five colors, and features VoiceOver. Touch first 8, 16, 32 GB USB (FireWire for charging only)[48] 5 September 2007 Mac: 10.4 Win: XP audio: 22 video: 5 First iPod with Wi-Fi and a Multi-Touch interface. Features Safari browser and wireless access to the iTunes Store and YouTube. 32 GB model later added. iPhone OS 2.0 and App Store access requires an upgrade fee. second 8, 16, 32 GB USB 9 September 2008 Mac: 10.4 Win: XP audio: 36 video: 6 New tapered chrome back with Nike+ functionality, volume buttons, and built-in speaker added. iPhone OS 2.0 and App Store access standard. Bluetooth support added but not made active until iPhone OS 3.0, which requires an upgrade fee. third 32, 64 GB USB 9 September 2009 Mac: 10.4 Win: XP audio: 30 video: 6 Updated to include the upgraded internals from the iPhone 3GS; includes Voice Control support and bundled remote earphones. fourth 8, 32, 64 GB USB 9 September 2010 Mac: 10.5 Win: XP audio: 40 video: 7 New thinner design including two cameras for FaceTime and HD video recording, Retina display from iPhone 4, Apple A4 chip. Sources: Apple Inc.[49], Mactracker[50] Timeline of iPod models See also: Timeline of full-sized iPod models, Timeline of compact iPod models, and Timeline of Apple Inc. products Sources: Apple press release library,[51] Mactracker Apple Inc. model database[50] Patent disputes In 2005, Apple faced two lawsuits claiming patent infringement by the iPod line and its associated technologies:[52] Advanced Audio Devices claimed the iPod line breached its patent on a "music jukebox",[53] while a Hong Kong-based IP portfolio company called Pat-rights filed a suit claiming that Apple's FairPlay technology breached a patent[54] issued to inventor Ho Keung Tse. The latter case also includes the online music stores of Sony, RealNetworks, Napster, and Musicmatch as defendants.[55] Apple's application to the United States Patent and Trademark Office for a patent on "rotational user inputs",[56] as used on the iPod interface, received a third "non-final rejection" (NFR) in August 2005. Also in August 2005, Creative Technology, one of Apple's main rivals in the MP3 player market, announced that it held a patent[57] on part of the music selection interface used by the iPod line, which Creative dubbed the "Zen Patent", granted on 9 August 2005.[58] On 15 May 2006, Creative filed another suit against Apple with the United States District Court for the Northern District of California. Creative also asked the United States International Trade Commission to investigate whether Apple was breaching U.S. trade laws by importing iPods into the United States.[59] On 24 August 2006, Apple and Creative announced a broad settlement to end their legal disputes. Apple will pay Creative US$100 million for a paid-up license, to use Creative's awarded patent in all Apple products. As part of the agreement, Apple will recoup part of its payment, if Creative is successful in licensing the patent. Creative then announced its intention to produce iPod accessories by joining the Made for iPod program.[60] Sales iPod quarterly sales. Click for table of data and sources. Note that Q1 is October through December of previous year, the holiday season. See also: iPod advertising Since October 2004, the iPod line has dominated digital music player sales in the United States, with over 90% of the market for hard drive-based players and over 70% of the market for all types of players.[61] During the year from January 2004 to January 2005, the high rate of sales caused its U.S. market share to increase from 31% to 65% and in July 2005, this market share was measured at 74%. In January 2007 the iPod market share reached 72.7% according to Bloomberg Online. The release of the iPod Mini helped to ensure this success at a time when competing flash-based music players were once dominant.[citation needed] On 8 January 2004, Hewlett-Packard (HP) announced that they would sell HP-branded iPods under a license agreement from Apple. Several new retail channels were used—including Wal-Mart—and these iPods eventually made up 5% of all iPod sales. In July 2005, HP stopped selling iPods due to unfavorable terms and conditions imposed by Apple.[62] In January 2007, Apple reported record quarterly revenue of US$7.1 billion, of which 48% was made from iPod sales.[63] On 9 April 2007, it was announced that Apple had sold its one-hundred millionth iPod, making it the biggest selling digital music player of all time. In April 2007, Apple reported second quarter revenue of US$5.2 billion, of which 32% was made from iPod sales.[64] Apple and several industry analysts suggest that iPod users are likely to purchase other Apple products such as Mac computers.[65] On 5 September 2007, during their "The Beat Goes On" event, Apple announced that the iPod line had surpassed 110 million units sold.[citation needed] On 22 October 2007, Apple reported quarterly revenue of US$6.22 billion, of which 30.69% came from Apple notebook sales, 19.22% from desktop sales and 26% from iPod sales. Apple's 2007 year revenue increased to US$24.01 billion with US$3.5 billion in profits. Apple ended the fiscal year 2007 with US$15.4 billion in cash and no debt.[66] On 22 January 2008, Apple reported the best quarter revenue and earnings in Apple's history so far. Apple posted record revenue of US$9.6 billion and record net quarterly profit of US$1.58 billion. 42% of Apple's revenue for the First fiscal quarter of 2008 came from iPod sales, followed by 21% from notebook sales and 16% from desktop sales.[67] On 21 October 2008, Apple reported that only 14.21% of total revenue for fiscal quarter 4 of year 2008 came from iPods.[68] At the September 9, 2009 keynote presentation at the Apple Event, Phil Schiller announced total cumulative sales of iPods exceeded 220 million.[69] Industry impact iPods have won several awards ranging from engineering excellence,[70] to most innovative audio product,[71] to fourth best computer product of 2006.[72] iPods often receive favorable reviews; scoring on looks, clean design, and ease of use. PC World says that iPod line has "altered the landscape for portable audio players".[71] Several industries are modifying their products to work better with both the iPod line and the AAC audio format. Examples include CD copy-protection schemes,[73] and mobile phones, such as phones from Sony Ericsson and Nokia, which play AAC files rather than WMA. Besides earning a reputation as a respected entertainment device, the iPod has also been accepted as business devices. Government departments, major institutions and international organisations have turned to the iPod line as a delivery mechanism for business communication and training, such as the Royal and Western Infirmaries in Glasgow, Scotland, where iPods are used to train new staff.[74] iPods have also gained popularity for use in education. Apple offers more information on educational uses for iPods on their website,[75] including a collection of lesson plans. There has also been academic research done in this area in nursing education[76] and more general K-16 education.[77] Duke University provided iPods to all incoming freshmen in the fall of 2004, and the iPod program continues today with modifications.[78] Entertainment Weekly put it on its end-of-the-decade, "best-of" list, saying, "Yes, children, there really was a time when we roamed the earth without thousands of our favorite jams tucked comfortably into our hip pockets. Weird."[79] Criticism This article's Criticism or Controversy section(s) may mean the article does not present a neutral point of view of the subject. It may be better to integrate the material in those sections into the article as a whole. (September 2009) Battery problems The advertised battery life on most models is different from the real-world achievable life. For example, the fifth generation 30 GB iPod is advertised as having up to 14 hours of music playback. An MP3.com report stated that this was virtually unachievable under real-life usage conditions, with a writer for MP3.com getting on average less than 8 hours from an iPod.[80] In 2003, class action lawsuits were brought against Apple complaining that the battery charges lasted for shorter lengths of time than stated and that the battery degraded over time.[81] The lawsuits were settled by offering individuals either US$50 store credit or a free battery replacement.[82] iPod batteries are not designed to be removed or replaced by the user, although some users have been able to open the case themselves, usually following instructions from third-party vendors of iPod replacement batteries. Compounding the problem, Apple initially would not replace worn-out batteries. The official policy was that the customer should buy a refurbished replacement iPod, at a cost almost equivalent to a brand new one. All lithium-ion batteries lose capacity during their lifetime even when not in use[83] (guidelines are available for prolonging life-span) and this situation led to a market for third-party battery replacement kits. Apple announced a battery replacement program on 14 November 2003, a week before[84] a high publicity stunt and website by the Neistat Brothers.[85] The initial cost was US$99,[86] and it was lowered to US$59 in 2005. One week later, Apple offered an extended iPod warranty for US$59.[87] For the iPod Nano, soldering tools are needed because the battery is soldered onto the main board. Fifth generation iPods have their battery attached to the backplate with adhesive.[88][89] Reliability and durability iPods have been criticized for their short life-span and fragile hard drives. A 2005 survey conducted on the MacInTouch website found that the iPod line had an average failure rate of 13.7% (although they note that comments from respondents indicate that "the true iPod failure rate may be lower than it appears"). It concluded that some models were more durable than others.[90] In particular, failure rates for iPods employing hard drives was usually above 20% while those with flash memory had a failure rate below 10%, indicating poor hard drive durability. In late 2005, many users complained that the surface of the first generation iPod Nano can become scratched easily, rendering the screen unusable.[91][92] A class action lawsuit was also filed.[93] Apple initially considered the issue a minor defect, but later began shipping these iPods with protective sleeves. Allegations of worker exploitation On 11 June 2006, the British tabloid The Mail on Sunday reported that iPods are mainly manufactured by workers who earn no more than US$50 per month and work 15-hour shifts.[94] Apple investigated the case with independent auditors and found that, while some of the plant's labour practices met Apple's Code of Conduct, others did not: Employees worked over 60 hours a week for 35% of the time, and worked more than six consecutive days for 25% of the time.[95] Foxconn, Apple's manufacturer, initially denied the abuses,[96] but when an auditing team from Apple found that workers had been working longer hours than were allowed under Chinese law, they promised to prevent workers working more hours than the code allowed. Apple hired a workplace standards auditing company, Verité, and joined the Electronic Industry Code of Conduct Implementation Group to oversee the measures. On 31 December 2006, workers at the Foxconn factory in Longhua, Shenzhen formed a union affiliated with the All-China Federation of Trade Unions,[97] the Chinese government-approved union umbrella organization.[98][99] In 2010, a number of workers committed suicide at a Foxconn operations in China. Apple, HP, and others stated that they were investigating the situation. Foxconn guards have been videotaped beating employees. Another employee killed himself in 2009 when an Apple prototype went missing, and claimed in messages to friends, that he had been beaten and interrogated.[100][101] See also Book:Apple Inc. Books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print. Design portal Apple Inc. portal Comparison of portable media players Comparison of iPod managers iPhone References ^ "Apple, HP, Dell Looking Into Foxconn’s Working Conditions In China - ChinaTechNews.com - The Technology Source for the Latest Chinese News on Internet, Computers, Digital, Science, Electronics, Law, Security, Software, Web 2.0, Telecom, and Wireless Industries". ChinaTechNews.com. 2010-05-28. Retrieved 2010-06-02. ^ Apple Inc.. "iTunes system requirements. Apple iTunes software runs on Mac OS X 10.3.9 or OS X 10.4.9 or later and on Microsoft Windows XP (Service Pack 2) or Vista". Retrieved 2008-05-28. ^ Ross McKillop, simplehelp.net. "Alternatives to iTunes for managing your iPod". Retrieved 2008-05-28. ^ a b c d e f Kahney, Leander.Straight Dope on the iPod's Birth, Wired News, 2006-10-17. Retrieved on 2006-10-30. ^ "2007 Engineer of the Year Finalist Michael Dhuey’s Hardware Knowledge Helps Breathe Life Into iPod, TelePresence", Design News, 24 September 2007. ^ A History of the iPod: 2000 to 2004 ^ a b Boffey, Daniel Apple admit Briton DID invent iPod, but he's still not getting any money Daily Mail, 2008-09-08. Retrieved on 2008-09-08. ^ Serial No. 78018061, Registration No. 2781793, records of the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. InPub, LLC, filed an "IPOD" trademark on 1 June 1999, for "computer software and hardware." The trademark was abandoned May 18, 2000, without commercial use. ^ http://tess2.uspto.gov/bin/…4003:49bklr.2.39[dead link] ^ The restrictions vary from generation to generation; for the earliest video iPods, video is required to be Baseline Profile (BP), up to Level 1.3, meaning most significantly no B-frames (BP), a maximum bitrate of 768 kb/s (BP Level 1.3), and a maximum framerate of 30 fps at 320×240 resolution. Newer iPods support BP up to level 3.0 (10,000 kb/s), for a maximum framerate of 30 fps at 640×480 resolution. Current specifications can be seen at iPod Classic Technical Specs, and practical implementations can be seen in the libx264-ipod320.ffpreset and libx264-ipod640.ffpreset preset files for FFmpeg, as discussed in [Ffmpeg-user] Successful ipod h264 encoding, by Daniel Rogers, Jun 11, 2006. ^ iTunes Downloads ^ iTunes Music Store Catalog Tops One Million Songs, Apple Inc., 2004-08-10. Retrieved on 2006-12-28. ^ Scott-Joynt, Jeremy. Apple targets TV and film market, BBC News, 2006-09-12. Retrieved on 2006-09-12. ^ Kanellos, Michael. Real's Glaser exhorts Apple to open iPod, CNet News, 2004-03-23. Retrieved on 2006-06-20. ^ Orlowski, Andrew. Your 99c belong to the RIAA – Steve Jobs, The Register, 2003-11-07. Retrieved on2006-06-20. ^ Evans, Jonny. Universal confirms iTunes contract change, Macworld UK, 2007-07-04. 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Retrieved on 2006-06-20. ^ Honda Music Link for iPods, Honda. Retrieved on 2007-02-17. ^ Apple Car Integration page ^ Apple Teams Up With Acura, Audi, Honda & Volkswagen to Deliver Seamless iPod Experience, Apple Inc., 2005-09-07. Retrieved on 2006-06-20. ^ Car Integration: iPod your car, Apple Inc.. Retrieved on 2007-02-17. ^ Apple Teams Up With Continental, Delta, Emirates, & United to deliver iPod Integration, Apple Inc., 2006-11-14. Retrieved on 2006-12-07. ^ Marsal, Katie. Two of six airlines say there's no ink on iPod deal, AppleInsider, 2006-11-15. Retrieved on 2006-12-07. ^ a b Machrone, Bill. iPod audio measurements, PC Magazine, 2005. Retrieved on 2007-02-17. ^ Heijligers, Marc. iPod audio measurements. Retrieved on 2007-02-17. ^ Heijligers, Marc. iPod circuit design engineering, May 2006. Retrieved on 2007-02-17. ^ Cohen, Peter. iPod update limits iPod volume setting, Macworld, 2006. Retrieved on 2008-11-07. ^ Fried, Ian. Apple pulls iPod in France. Retrieved on 2008-11-07. ^ "iPhone and iPod touch: Charging the battery". Apple. 15 October 2009. Retrieved 12 January 2010. ^ Apple Inc., Identifying iPod models, retrieved 31 October 2007. ^ a b Mactracker (mactracker.ca), Apple Inc. model database, version as of 26 July 2007. ^ Apple Inc., Apple press release library, Retrieved September 19, 2007. ^ Apple faces patent lawsuits over its iPod, ChannelRegister, 2005-03-10. Retrieved on 2007-02-17. ^ U.S. Patent 6,587,403 — Advanced Audio Devices' "music jukebox" patent. ^ U.S. Patent 6,665,797 — "Protection of software again against unauthorized use" (corrected to "Computer Apparatus/Software Access Control"). ^ Apple, Sony among those named in new DRM lawsuit, AppleInsider, 2005-08-16. Retrieved on 2007-02-17. ^ U.S. patent application 20030095096 Apple Inc.'s application on "rotational user inputs". ^ U.S. Patent 6,928,433 Creative Technology's "Zen" patent. ^ Creative wins MP3 player patent, BBC News, 2005-08-30. Retrieved on 2007-02-17. ^ Creative sues Apple over patent, Macworld UK, 2006-05-16. Retrieved on 2007-03-20. ^ Apple & Creative Announce Broad Settlement..., , Apple Inc.. Retrieved on 2007-02-17. ^ Marsal, Katie. iPod: how big can it get?, AppleInsider, 2006-05-24. Retrieved on 2007-02-17. ^ HP to stop selling Apple's iPods, AppleInsider, 2005-07-29. Retrieved on 2007-08-06. ^ Apple Reports First Quarter Results, Apple Inc., 2007-01-17. Retrieved on 2007-02-17. ^ Apple Reports Second Quarter Results, Apple Inc.. Retrieved on 2007-04-25. ^ Orlowski, Andrew. For Apple, Halo effect eclipses Osborne effect, The Register, 2005-10-11. Retrieved on 2006-07-13. ^ Apple Reports Fourth Quarter 2007 Results, Apple Inc., 2007-10-22. Retrieved on 2007-10-22. ^ Apple Inc. (22 January 2008). Apple Reports First Quarter Results. Press release. Retrieved on 2008-1-23 ^ AppleInsider (27 October 2008). [1] Retrieved on 2008-10-27 ^ World of Apple. (9 September 2009). Live Coverage From Apple’s “It’s Only Rock and Roll” Event. Press release. Retrieved on 2009-9-9 ^ iPod and Bluetooth lead to prizes, BBC News, 2005-06-03. Retrieved on 2007-03-20. ^ a b "The 25 Most Innovative Products of the Year". PC World. 2007-08-03. Retrieved 2007-02-17. ^ Apple wins 5 'World Class' awards, MacNN. Retrieved on 2007-02-17. ^ Apple, iPod, and CD Copy Protection, MacRumors. Retrieved on 2007-02-17. ^ Hospitals train staff with iPods, BBC News, 2006-03-29. Retrieved on 2007-06-16. ^ Mobile Learning ^ Maag, M.E.D. (2006). "Podcasting and MP3 Players: Emerging Education Technologies.". CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing 24 (1): 9–13. doi:10.1186/1742-5581-3-1. PMID 16522216. PMC 1420322. Retrieved 2008-02-08. ^ Slykhuis, D. (2006). Have an iPod? Then you need to know this about how to use it in your classroom.. Retrieved 2008-02-08.[dead link] ^ Duke’s Ever-Evolving iPod Initiative ^ Geier, Thom; Jensen, Jeff; Jordan, Tina; Lyons, Margaret; Markovitz, Adam; Nashawaty, Chris; Pastorek, Whitney; Rice, Lynette; Rottenberg, Josh; Schwartz, Missy; Slezak, Michael; Snierson, Dan; Stack, Tim; Stroup, Kate; Tucker, Ken; Vary, Adam B.; Vozick-Levinson, Simon; Ward, Kate (December 11, 2009), "THE 100 Greatest MOVIES, TV SHOWS, ALBUMS, BOOKS, CHARACTERS, SCENES, EPISODES, SONGS, DRESSES, MUSIC VIDEOS, AND TRENDS THAT ENTERTAINED US OVER THE PAST 10 YEARS". Entertainment Weekly. (1079/1080):74-84 ^ MP3 Insider: The truth about your battery life, mp3.com, 2006-03-13. Retrieved on 2006-07-10. ^ Apple investigates iPod batteries, BBC News, 2004-02-10. Retrieved on 2007-03-20. ^ Horwitz, Jeremy. Apple’s iPod Battery Settlement, Explained, iLounge, 2005-06-10. Retrieved on 2006-08-27. ^ The Curse of Lithium Ion Batteries, MP3 Newswire, 2006-01-06. Retrieved on 2006-11-30. ^ iPod Battery FAQ. 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Retrieved on 2007-03-20. ^ Foxconn denies iPod 'sweatshop' claims, MacNN, 2006-06-19. Retrieved on 2007-02-17. ^ ITUC Hong Kong Liaison Office (2007-01-02). "ACFTU Union established at Foxconn on the very last day of 2006". Retrieved 2010-02-02. ^ McDonald's and KFC seeking to resolve Chinese minimum wage issue ..., April 5, 2007, nytimes.com. Retrieved 2010 5 27. ^ Wal-Mart backs down and allows Chinese workers to join union, 11 August 2006, Jonathan Watts, The Guardian ^ Suicides Spark Inquiries Apple, H-P to Examine Asian Supplier After String of Deaths at Factory, Jason Dean, Ting-i Tsai, May 27, 2010, accessed May 27, 2010 ^ The Foxconn Suicides, May 28, 2010, wsj.com, WSJ opinion, accessed 27 May 2010 iPhone From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the line of smartphones designed and marketed by Apple Inc. For other uses, see IPhone (disambiguation). The iPhone 4 is the most recent generation of iPhone. List of iPhone models iPhone (original) iPhone 3G iPhone 3GS iPhone 4 Related articles: iPod Touch, iPad The iPhone (pronounced /ˈaɪfoʊn/ EYE-fohn) is a line of Internet and multimedia-enabled smartphones designed and marketed by Apple Inc. The first iPhone was introduced on January 9, 2007.[1] An iPhone functions as a camera phone, including text messaging and visual voicemail, a portable media player, and an Internet client, with e-mail, web browsing, and Wi-Fi connectivity. The user interface is built around the device's multi-touch screen, including a virtual keyboard rather than a physical one. Third-party applications are available from the App Store, which launched in mid-2008 and now has well over 300,000[2] "apps" approved by Apple. These apps have diverse functionalities, including games, reference, GPS navigation, social networking, and advertising for television shows, films, and celebrities. There are four generations of iPhone models, and they were accompanied by four major releases of iOS (formerly iPhone OS). The original iPhone established design precedents like screen size and button placement that have persisted through all models. The iPhone 3G added 3G cellular network capabilities and A-GPS location. The iPhone 3GS added a compass, faster processor, and higher resolution camera, including video. The iPhone 4 has two cameras for FaceTime video calling and a higher-resolution display. It was released on June 24, 2010. Contents [hide] 1 History and availability 2 Hardware 2.1 Screen and input 2.2 Audio and output 2.3 Battery 2.4 Camera 2.5 Storage and SIM 2.6 Moisture sensors 2.7 Included items 3 Models 4 Software 4.1 Interface 4.2 Phone 4.3 Multimedia 4.4 Internet connectivity 4.5 Text input 4.6 E-mail and text messages 4.7 Third party applications 4.8 Accessibility 5 Intellectual property 6 Restrictions 6.1 Activation 6.2 Unlicensed third party software and jailbreaking 6.3 SIM unlocking 6.3.1 United States 6.3.2 United Kingdom 6.3.3 Australia 6.3.4 Denmark 6.3.5 Germany 6.3.6 Other countries 7 See also 8 References 9 External links History and availability Worldwide iPhone sales by quarter. Sales volume is in millions. Q1 is the holiday season. Original iPhone iPhone 3G iPhone 3G and 3Gs (Apple does not differentiate) Worldwide iPhone availability: Original iPhone was available; now iPhone 4 iPhone 3G and 3GS Coming soon Main article: History of the iPhone See also: List of iOS devices Development of the iPhone began with Apple CEO Steve Jobs' direction that Apple engineers investigate touchscreens.[3] Apple created the device during a secretive and unprecedented collaboration with AT&T Mobility—Cingular Wireless at the time—at an estimated development cost of US$150 million over thirty months.[4] Apple rejected the "design by committee" approach that had yielded the Motorola ROKR E1, a largely unsuccessful collaboration with Motorola. Instead, Cingular gave Apple the liberty to develop the iPhone's hardware and software in-house.[5][6] Jobs unveiled the iPhone to the public on January 9, 2007 at Macworld 2007. Apple was required to file for operating permits with the FCC, but since such filings are made available to the public, the announcement came months before the iPhone had received approval. The iPhone went on sale in the United States on June 29, 2007, at 6:00 pm local time, while hundreds of customers lined up outside the stores nationwide.[7] The original iPhone was made available in the UK, France, and Germany in November 2007, and Ireland and Austria in the spring of 2008. On July 11, 2008, Apple released the iPhone 3G in twenty-two countries, including the original six.[8] Apple released the iPhone 3G in upwards of eighty countries and territories.[9] Apple announced the iPhone 3GS on June 8, 2009, along with plans to release it later in June, July, and August, starting with the U.S., Canada and major European countries on June 19. Many would-be users objected to the iPhone's cost,[10] and 40% of users have household incomes over US$100,000.[11] In an attempt to gain a wider market, Apple retained the 8 GB iPhone 3G at a lower price point. When Apple introduced the iPhone 4, the 3GS became the less expensive model. Apple reduced the price several times since the iPhone's release in 2007, at which time an 8 GB iPhone sold for $599. An iPhone 3GS with the same capacity now costs $99. However, these numbers are misleading, since all iPhone units sold through AT&T require a two-year contract (costing several hundred dollars), and a SIM lock. Apple sold 6.1 million original iPhone units over five quarters.[12] The company sold 3.8 million iPhone 3G units in the second quarter of fiscal 2009, ending March 2009, and 12.6 million 3G and 3GS combined, totaling 33.75 million iPhones sold to date (Q4 2009).[13] Sales in Q4 2008 surpassed temporarily those of RIM's BlackBerry sales of 5.2 million units, which made Apple briefly the third largest mobile phone manufacturer by revenue, after Nokia and Samsung.[14] Approximately 6.4 million iPhones are active in the U.S. alone.[11] While iPhone sales constitute a significant portion of Apple's revenue, some of this income is deferred.[13] The back of the original iPhone was made of aluminum with a black plastic accent. The iPhone 3G and 3GS feature a full plastic back to increase the strength of the GSM signal.[15] The iPhone 3G was available in an 8 GB black model, or a black or white option for the 16 GB model. They both are now discontinued. The iPhone 3GS was available in both colors, regardless of storage capacity. The white model was discontinued in favor of a black 8 GB low-end model. The iPhone 4 has an aluminosilicate glass front and back with a stainless steel edge that serves as the antennae. It is available in black; a white version was announced, but has as of October 2010 not been released. The iPhone has garnered positive reviews from critics like David Pogue[16] and Walter Mossberg.[17][18] The iPhone attracts users of all ages,[11] and besides consumer use the iPhone has also been adopted for business purposes.[19] Hardware The screen is the dominant feature of the front of the iPhone, and is the main method of user interaction. Screen and input The touchscreen is a 9 cm (3.5 in) liquid crystal display with scratch-resistant glass.[20] The capacitive touchscreen is designed for a bare finger, or multiple fingers for multi-touch sensing. The screens on the first three generations of the iPhone have a resolution of 320 x 480 (HVGA) at 163 ppi, while the display on the iPhone 4 has a resolution of 640 x 960 at 326 ppi. The touch and gesture features of the iPhone are based on technology originally developed by FingerWorks.[21] Most gloves and styluses prevent the necessary electrical conductivity;[22][23][24][25] however, capacitive styli can be used with iPhone's finger-touch screen. The iPhone 3GS also features a fingerprint-resistant oleophobic coating.[26] The top and side of the iPhone 3GS, externally identical to the iPhone 3G. The switches were black plastic on the original model. From left to right, sides: wake/sleep button, SIM card slot, headphone jack, silence switch, volume controls. Top: earpiece, screen. The iPhone has a minimal hardware user interface, featuring only four or five buttons, depending on whether the volume control is counted as one button or two. The only physical menu button is situated directly below the display, and is called the "Home button" because it closes the active app and navigates to the home screen of the interface. The home button is denoted not by a house, as on many other similar devices, but a rounded square, reminiscent of the shape of icons on the home screen. A multifunction sleep/wake button is located on the top of the device. It serves as the unit's power button, and also controls phone calls. When a call is received, pressing the sleep/wake button once silences the ringtone, and when pressed twice transfers the call to voicemail. Situated on the left spine are the volume adjustment controls. The iPhone 4 has two separate circular buttons to increase and decrease the volume; all earlier models house two switches under a single plastic panel, known as a rocker switch. Directly above the volume controls is a silence button that mutes all sound when engaged. All buttons except Home were made of plastic on the original iPhone and metal on all later models. The touchscreen furnishes the remainder of the user interface. The display responds to three sensors. A proximity sensor deactivates the display and touchscreen when the device is brought near the face during a call. This is done to save battery power and to prevent inadvertent inputs from the user's face and ears. An ambient light sensor adjusts the display brightness which in turn saves battery power. A 3-axis accelerometer senses the orientation of the phone and changes the screen accordingly, allowing the user to easily switch between portrait and landscape mode.[27] Photo browsing, web browsing, and music playing support both upright and left or right widescreen orientations.[28] Unlike the iPad, the iPhone does not rotate the screen when turned upside-down, with the Home button above the screen. The 3.0 update added landscape support for still other applications, such as email, and introduced shaking the unit as a form of input.[29][30] The accelerometer can also be used to control third party apps, notably games. The iPhone 4 also includes a gyroscopic sensor, enhancing its perception of how it is moved. A software update in January 2008[31] allowed the first generation iPhone to use cell tower and Wi-Fi network locations trilateration,[32] despite lacking GPS hardware. The iPhone 3G, 3GS and 4 employ A-GPS, and the iPhone 3GS and 4 also have a digital compass.[33] Audio and output One of two speakers (left) and the microphone (right) surround the dock connector on the base of the original iPhone. If a headset is plugged in, sound is played through it instead. The bottom of the iPhone sports a speaker (left) and a microphone (right) flanking the dock connector. One loudspeaker is located above the screen as an earpiece, and another is located on the left side of the bottom of the unit, opposite a microphone on the bottom-right. The iPhone 4 includes an additional microphone at the top of the unit for noise cancellation, and switches the placement of the microphone and speaker on the base on the unit—the speaker is on the left.[34] Volume controls are located on the left side of all iPhone models and as a slider in the iPod application. The 3.5 mm TRRS connector for the headphones is located on the top left corner of the device.[35] The headphone socket on the original iPhone is recessed into the casing, making it incompatible with most headsets without the use of an adapter.[36][37] Subsequent generations eliminated the issue by using a flush-mounted headphone socket. Cars equipped with an auxiliary jack allow for handsfree use of the iPhone while driving as a substitute for Bluetooth. While the iPhone is compatible with normal headphones, Apple provides a headset with additional functionality. A multipurpose button near the microphone can be used to play or pause music, skip tracks, and answer or end phone calls without touching the iPhone. A small number of third-party headsets specifically designed for the iPhone also include the microphone and control button.[38] The current headsets also provide volume controls, which are only compatible with more recent models.[39] These features are achieved by a fourth ring in the audio jack that carries this extra information. The built-in Bluetooth 2.x+EDR supports wireless earpieces and headphones, which requires the HSP profile. Stereo audio was added in the 3.0 update for hardware that supports A2DP.[29][30] While non-sanctioned third-party solutions exist, the iPhone does not officially support the OBEX file transfer protocol.[40] The lack of these profiles prevents iPhone users from exchanging multimedia files, such as pictures, music and videos, with other bluetooth-enabled cell phones. Composite or component video at up to 576i and stereo audio can be output from the dock connector using an adapter sold by Apple.[41] iPhone 4 also supports 1024x768 VGA output via a dock adapter. The iPhone did not support voice recording until the 3.0 software update.[29][30] Battery Replacing the battery requires opening the iPhone unit and exposing the internal hardware. The iPhone features an internal rechargeable battery. Like an iPod but unlike most other mobile phones, the battery is not user-replaceable.[36][42] The iPhone can be charged when connected to a computer for syncing across the included USB to dock connector cable, similar to charging an iPod. Alternatively, a USB to AC adapter (or "wall charger," also included) can be connected to the cable to charge directly from an AC outlet. A number of third party accessories (stereos, car chargers, even solar chargers) are also available.[43] Apple runs tests on preproduction units to determine battery life. Apple's website says that the battery life "is designed to retain up to 80% of its original capacity after 400 full charge and discharge cycles",[44] which is comparable to iPod batteries. The original iPhone's battery was stated to be capable of providing up to seven hours of video, six hours of web browsing, eight hours of talk time, 24 hours of music or up to 250 hours on standby.[20] The iPhone 3G's battery is stated to be capable of providing up to seven hours of video, six hours of web browsing on Wi-Fi or five on 3G, ten hours of 2G talk time, or five on 3G, 24 hours of music, or 300 hours of standby.[45] Apple claims that the 3GS can last for up to ten hours of video, nine hours of web browsing on Wi-Fi or five on 3G, twelve hours of 2G talk time, or five on 3G, 30 hours of music, or 300 hours of standby.[46] The battery life of the iPhone has been criticized by several technology journalists as insufficient and less than Apple's claims.[47][48][49][50] This is also reflected by a J. D. Power and Associates customer satisfaction survey, which gave the "battery aspects" of the iPhone 3G its lowest rating of 2 out of 5 stars.[51][52] If the battery malfunctions or dies prematurely, the phone can be returned to Apple and replaced for free while still under warranty.[53] The warranty lasts one year from purchase and can be extended to two years with AppleCare. Though the battery replacement service and its pricing was not made known to buyers until the day the product was launched,[54][55] it is similar to how Apple (and third parties) replace batteries for iPods. The Foundation for Taxpayer and Consumer Rights, a consumer advocate group, has sent a complaint to Apple and AT&T over the fee that consumers have to pay to have the battery replaced.[54] Since July 2007 third party battery replacement kits have been available[56] at a much lower price than Apple's own battery replacement program. These kits often include a small screwdriver and an instruction leaflet, but as with many newer iPod models the battery in the original iPhone has been soldered in. Therefore a soldering iron is required to install the new battery. The iPhone 3G uses a different battery fitted with a connector that is easier to replace, although replacement by any besides Apple still voids the warranty.[57] The iPhone 4 is the first generation to have two cameras. The LED flash for the rear-facing camera (top) and the forward-facing camera (bottom) are both unique to that model. Camera The iPhone and iPhone 3G feature a built-in Fixed focus 2.0 megapixel camera located on the back for still digital photos. It has no optical zoom, flash or autofocus, and does not support video recording, however jailbreaking allows users to do so. Version 2.0 of iPhone OS introduced the capability to embed location data in the pictures, producing geocoded photographs. The iPhone 3GS has a 3.2 megapixel camera, manufactured by OmniVision, featuring autofocus, auto white balance, and auto macro (up to 10 cm). It is also capable of capturing 640x480 (VGA resolution) video at 30 frames per second,[58] although compared to higher-end CCD based video cameras it does exhibit the rolling shutter effect.[59] The video can then be cropped on the device itself and directly uploaded to YouTube, MobileMe, or other services The iPhone 4 introduced a 5.0 megapixel camera, also located on the back, which is equipped with a backside illuminated sensor capable of capturing pictures in low-light conditions, as well as an LED flash capable of staying lit for video recording at 720p resolution, considered high-definition.[60] In addition the iPhone 4 has a second camera on the front capable of VGA photos and SD video recording. Storage and SIM An iPhone 3G with the SIM slot open. The SIM ejector tool is still placed in the eject hole. The iPhone was initially released with two options for internal storage size: 4 GB or 8 GB. On September 5, 2007, Apple discontinued the 4 GB models.[61] On February 5, 2008, Apple added a 16 GB model.[62] The iPhone 3G was available in 16 GB and 8 GB. The iPhone 3GS came in 16 GB and 32 GB variants and still is available in 8 GB. The iPhone 4 is available in 16 GB and 32 GB variants. All data is stored on the internal flash drive; the iPhone does not support expanded storage through a memory card slot, or the SIM card. The SIM card sits in a tray, which is inserted into a slot at the top of the device. The SIM tray can be ejected with a paperclip or the "SIM eject tool" (a simple piece of die-cut sheet metal) included with the iPhone 3G and 3GS.[63][64] In most countries, the iPhone is usually sold with a SIM lock, which prevents the iPhone from being used on a different mobile network.[65] The iPhone 4 features a MicroSIM card that is located in a slot on the right side of the device.[66] Moisture sensors The iPhone has moisture sensors to indicate whether water damage has affected a device. The sensors on an iPhone include a small disc which is located in the headphone jack and an area near the dock connector.[67] The sensors are often used by Apple employees to determine whether the device qualifies for a warranty repair or replacement, and if the sensors show that the device has absorbed moisture they may determine that the device is not covered. However, the moisture sensors might be "tripped" through routine use, and if a device is worn while exercising the sweat from an owner may dampen the sensors enough to indicate water damage.[68] On many other mobile phones from different manufacturers, the moisture sensors are located in a protected location, such as beneath the battery behind a battery cover, but the sensors on an iPhone are directly exposed to the environment. This has led to criticism of the placement of the sensors, which may also be affected by steam in a bathroom or other light environmental moisture.[69] Included items The contents of the box of an iPhone 4. From left to right: lid, iPhone 4 in plastic holder, written documentation, and (top to bottom) headset, USB cable, wall charger. All iPhone models include written documentation, and a dock connector to USB cable. The original and 3G iPhones also came with a cleaning cloth. The original iPhone included stereo headset (earbuds and a microphone) and a plastic dock to hold the unit upright while charging and syncing. The iPhone 3G includes a similar headset plus a SIM eject tool (the original model requires a paperclip). The iPhone 3GS includes the SIM eject tool and a revised headset, which adds volume buttons.[39] The iPhone 3G and 3GS are compatible with the same dock, sold separately, but not the original model's dock.[70] All versions include a USB power adapter, or "wall charger," which allows the iPhone to charge from an AC outlet. The iPhone 3G and iPhone 3GS sold in North America, Japan, Colombia, Ecuador, or Peru[71][72] include an ultracompact USB power adapter. The iPhone 4 owners get free bumper case to temporarily resolve the antenna problems.[73] Models Main article: List of iOS devices Legend Discontinued Current [hide]Table of models Model iPhone iPhone 3G iPhone 3GS iPhone 4 Initial operating system iPhone OS 1.0 iPhone OS 2.0 iPhone OS 3.0 iOS 4.0 Highest Supported operating system iPhone OS 3.1.3 iOS 4.2 Display 3.5 in (89 mm), 3:2 aspect ratio, scratch-resistant[20] glossy glass covered screen, 262,144-color LCD, 480 × 320 px (HVGA) at 163 ppi In addition to previous, features a fingerprint-resistant oleophobic coating[74] 3.5 in (89 mm), 3:2 aspect ratio, aluminosilicate glass covered IPS LCD screen, 960 × 640 px at 326 ppi, 800:1 contrast ratio Storage 4, 8 and 16 GB 8 and 16 GB 8, 16 and 32 GB 16 and 32 GB Processor 620 MHz (underclocked to 412 MHz) Samsung 32-bit RISC ARM 1176JZ(F)-S v1.0[75][76] 833 MHz (underclocked to 600 MHz) ARM Cortex-A8[77][78] Samsung S5PC100[77][79] ARM Cortex-A8 Apple A4[80] Graphics PowerVR MBX Lite 3D GPU[81] PowerVR SGX535 GPU[77] PowerVR SGX535 GPU[82] Memory 128 MB DRAM[83] 256 MB DRAM[77][78] 512 MB DRAM[84] Connectivity Wi-Fi (802.11b/g), USB 2.0/Dock connector, Quad band GSM/GPRS/EDGE (850, 900, 1800, 1900 MHz) Bluetooth 2.0 + EDR Cambridge Bluecore4[85] In addition to previous: Assisted GPS, Tri-band UMTS/HSDPA (850, 1900, 2100 MHz),[45] Includes earphones with mic In addition to previous: 7.2 Mbit/s HSDPA, Voice Control, Digital compass, Nike+, Bluetooth 2.1 + EDR Broadcom 4325,[86] Includes earphones with remote and mic In addition to previous: Penta-band UMTS/HSDPA (800, 850, 900, 1900, 2100 MHz),[34][87] 5.76 Mbit/s HSUPA, 3-axis gyroscope, Dual-mic noise suppression, microSIM Camera 2.0 MP with geotagging 3.0 MP with VGA video at 30 fps, geotagging, tap to focus, and focus, white balance, macro focus & exposure Rear 5.0 MP backside illuminated CMOS image sensor with 720p HD video at 30 fps and LED flash N/A Front 0.3 MP (VGA) with geotagging, tap to focus, and 480p SD video at 30 fps Audio codec Wolfson Microelectronics WM8758BG[88] Wolfson Microelectronics WM6180C[89] Cirrus Logic CS42L61[90][91] Materials Aluminum, glass and plastic Glass and plastic; black or white (white not available for 8 GB models) Aluminosilicate glass and stainless steel; black (white announced, but as of October 2010 not released) Power Built-in non removable rechargeable lithium-ion polymer battery[92][93][94] 3.7 V 1400 mA·h[citation needed] 3.7 V 1150 mA·h[93] 3.7 V 1219 mA·h[95] 3.7 V 1420 mA·h[96] Rated battery life (hours) audio: 24 video: 7 Talk over 2G: 8 Browsing internet: 6 Standby: 250 audio: 24 video: 7 Talk over 3G: 5 Browsing over 3G: 5 Browsing over Wi-Fi: 9 Standby: 300 audio: 30 video: 10 Talk over 3G: 5 Browsing over 3G: 5 Browsing over Wi-Fi: 9 Standby: 300 audio: 40 video: 10 Talk over 3G: 7 Browsing over 3G: 6 Browsing over Wi-Fi: 10 Standby: 300[97] Dimensions 115 × 61 × 11.6 mm (4.5 × 2.4 × 0.46 in) 115.5 × 62.1 × 12.3 mm (4.5 × 2.4 × 0.48 in) 115.2 × 58.6 × 9.3 mm (4.5 × 2.31 × 0.37 in) Weight 135 g (4.8 oz) 133 g (4.7 oz) 135 g (4.8 oz) 137 g (4.8 oz) Released 4 and 8 GB: June 29, 2007 16 GB: February 5, 2008 July 11, 2008 16 and 32 GB: June 19, 2009 Black 8 GB: June 24, 2010 June 24, 2010 Discontinued 4 GB: September 5, 2007 8 and 16 GB: July 11, 2008 16 GB: June 8, 2009 Black 8 GB: June 4, 2010 16 and 32 GB: June 24, 2010 Black 8 GB: In production In production Type Allocation Codes 01/124500 01/161200, 01/181200 01/194800 01/233800 Software Main articles: iOS (Apple) and iOS version history The default Home screen of iOS 4 shows most of the applications provided by Apple. Users can download additional applications from the App store, create Web Clips, rearrange the icons, and create folders. The iPhone (and iPod Touch) run an operating system known as iOS (formerly iPhone OS). It is a variant of the same Darwin operating system core that is found in Mac OS X. Also included is the "Core Animation" software component from Mac OS X v10.5 Leopard. Together with the PowerVR hardware (and on the iPhone 3GS, OpenGL ES 2.0), it is responsible for the interface's motion graphics. The operating system takes up less than half a gigabyte.[98] It is capable of supporting bundled and future applications from Apple, as well as from third-party developers. Software applications cannot be copied directly from Mac OS X but must be written and compiled specifically for iOS. Like the iPod, the iPhone is managed with iTunes. The earliest versions of the OS required version 7.3 or later, which is compatible with Mac OS X version 10.4.10 Tiger or later, and 32-bit Windows XP or Vista.[99] The release of iTunes 7.6 expanded this support to include 64-bit versions of XP and Vista,[100] and a workaround has been discovered for previous 64-bit Windows operating systems.[101] Apple provides free updates to the OS for the iPhone through iTunes,[98] and major updates have historically accompanied new models.[102] Such updates often require a newer version of iTunes — for example, the 3.0 update requires iTunes 8.2 — but the iTunes system requirements have stayed the same. Updates include both security patches and new features.[103] For example, iPhone 3G users initially experienced dropped calls until an update was issued.[104][105] Interface The interface is based around the home screen, a graphical list of available applications. iPhone applications normally run one at a time (not including iOS 4, which includes running applications in the background [106]) , although most functionality is still available when making a call or listening to music. The home screen can be accessed at any time by a hardware button below the screen, closing the open application in the process.[107] By default, the Home screen contains the following icons: Messages (SMS and MMS messaging), Calendar, Photos, Camera, YouTube, Stocks, Maps (Google Maps), Weather, Voice Memos, Notes, Clock, Calculator, Settings, iTunes (store), App Store, and (on the iPhone 3GS and iPhone 4) Compass. Docked at the base of the screen, four icons for Phone, Mail, Safari (Internet), and iPod (multimedia) delineate the iPhone's main purposes.[108] On January 15, 2008, Apple released software update 1.1.3, allowing users to create "Web Clips", home screen icons that resemble apps that open a user-defined page in Safari. After the update, iPhone users can rearrange and place icons on up to nine other adjacent home screens, accessed by a horizontal swipe.[31] Users can also add and delete icons from the dock, which is the same on every home screen. Each home screen holds up to sixteen icons, and the dock holds up to four icons. Users can delete Web Clips and third-party applications at any time, and may select only certain applications for transfer from iTunes. Apple's default programs, however, may not be removed. The 3.0 update adds a system-wide search, known as Spotlight, to the left of the first home screen.[29][30] Almost all input is given through the touch screen, which understands complex gestures using multi-touch. The iPhone's interaction techniques enable the user to move the content up or down by a touch-drag motion of the finger. For example, zooming in and out of web pages and photos is done by placing two fingers on the screen and spreading them farther apart or bringing them closer together, a gesture known as "pinching". Scrolling through a long list or menu is achieved by sliding a finger over the display from bottom to top, or vice versa to go back. In either case, the list moves as if it is pasted on the outer surface of a wheel, slowly decelerating as if affected by friction. In this way, the interface simulates the physics of a real object. Other user-centered interactive effects include horizontally sliding sub-selection, the vertically sliding keyboard and bookmarks menu, and widgets that turn around to allow settings to be configured on the other side. Menu bars are found at the top and bottom of the screen when necessary. Their options vary by program, but always follow a consistent style motif. In menu hierarchies, a "back" button in the top-left corner of the screen displays the name of the parent folder. Phone When making a call, the iPhone presents a number of options. The screen is automatically disabled when held close to the face. The iPhone allows audio conferencing, call holding, call merging, caller ID, and integration with other cellular network features and iPhone functions. For example, if music is playing when a call is received, the music fades out, and fades back in when the call has ended. The proximity sensor shuts off the screen and touch-sensitive circuitry when the iPhone is brought close to the face, both to save battery and prevent unintentional touches. The iPhone does not support video calling or videoconferencing on versions prior to the 4th generation, as there is only one camera on the opposite side of the screen.[109] The iPhone 4 supports video calling using either the front or back camera over wi-fi, a feature Apple calls Facetime.[110] The first two models only support voice dialing through third party applications.[111] Voice control, available only on the iPhone 3GS and iPhone 4, allows users to say a contact's name or number and the iPhone will dial.[112] The iPhone includes a visual voicemail (in some countries)[113] feature allowing users to view a list of current voicemail messages on-screen without having to call into their voicemail. Unlike most other systems, messages can be listened to and deleted in a non-chronological order by choosing any message from an on-screen list. A music ringtone feature was introduced in the United States on September 5, 2007. Users can create custom ringtones from songs purchased from the iTunes Store for a small additional fee. The ringtones can be 3 to 30 seconds long from any part of a song, can fade in and out, pause from half a second to five seconds when looped, or loop continuously. All customizing can be done in iTunes,[114] or alternatively with Apple's GarageBand software 4.1.1 or later (available only on Mac OS X)[115] or third-party tools.[116] Multimedia The layout of the music library is similar to that of an iPod or current Symbian S60 phones. The iPhone can sort its media library by songs, artists, albums, videos, playlists, genres, composers, podcasts, audiobooks, and compilations. Options are always presented alphabetically, except in playlists, which retain their order from iTunes. The iPhone uses a large font that allows users plenty of room to touch their selection. Users can rotate their device horizontally to landscape mode to access Cover Flow. Like on iTunes, this feature shows the different album covers in a scroll-through photo library. Scrolling is achieved by swiping a finger across the screen. Alternatively, headset controls can be used to pause, play, skip, and repeat tracks. On the iPhone 3GS, the volume can be changed with the included Apple Earphones, and the Voice Control feature can be used to identify a track, play songs in a playlist or by a specific artist, or create a Genius playlist.[112] The photo display application supports both portrait and landscape orientations. The iPhone supports gapless playback.[117] Like the fifth generation iPods introduced in 2005, the iPhone can play digital video, allowing users to watch TV shows and movies in widescreen. Double-tapping switches between widescreen and fullscreen video playback. The iPhone allows users to purchase and download songs from the iTunes Store directly to their iPhone. The feature originally required a Wi-Fi network, but now[when?] can use the cellular data network if one is not available.[118] The iPhone includes software that allows the user to upload, view, and e-mail photos taken with the camera. The user zooms in and out of photos by sliding two fingers further apart or closer together, much like Safari. The Camera application also lets users view the camera roll, the pictures that have been taken with the iPhone's camera. Those pictures are also available in the Photos application, along with any transferred from iPhoto or Aperture on a Mac, or Photoshop in Windows. Internet connectivity Wikipedia Main Page on the iPhone's Safari web browser in landscape mode Internet access is available when the iPhone is connected to a local area Wi-Fi or a wide area GSM or EDGE network, both second-generation (2G) wireless data standards. The iPhone 3G introduced support for third-generation UMTS and HSDPA 3.6,[119] but not HSUPA networks, and only the iPhone 3GS and iPhone 4 support HSDPA 7.2.[120] AT&T introduced 3G in July 2004,[121] but as late as 2007 Steve Jobs stated that it was still not widespread enough in the US, and the chipsets not energy efficient enough, to be included in the iPhone.[23][122] Support for 802.1X, an authentication system commonly used by university and corporate Wi-Fi networks, was added in the 2.0 version update.[123] By default, the iPhone will ask to join newly discovered Wi-Fi networks and prompt for the password when required. Alternatively, it can join closed Wi-Fi networks manually.[124] The iPhone will automatically choose the strongest network, connecting to Wi-Fi instead of EDGE when it is available.[125] Similarly, the iPhone 3G, 3GS and 4 prefer 3G to 2G, and Wi-Fi to either.[126] Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and 3G (on the iPhone 3G, 3GS, and 4) can all be deactivated individually. Airplane mode disables all wireless connections at once, overriding other preferences. However, once in Airplane mode, one can explicitly enable Wi-Fi and/or Bluetooth modes to join and continue to operate over one or both of those networks while the cellular network transceivers remain off. The iPhone 3GS has a maximum download rate of 7.2 Mbit/s.[127] Furthermore, files downloaded over cellular networks must be smaller than 20 MB.[128] Larger files, often email attachments or podcasts, must be downloaded over Wi-Fi (which has no file size limits). If Wi-Fi is unavailable, one workaround is to open the files directly in Safari.[129] Safari is the iPhone's native web browser, and it displays pages similar to its Mac and Windows counterparts. Web pages may be viewed in portrait or landscape mode and supports automatic zooming by pinching together or spreading apart fingertips on the screen, or by double-tapping text or images.[130][131] The iPhone supports neither Flash[132] nor Java.[133][unreliable source?] Consequently, the UK's Advertising Standards Authority adjudicated that an advertisement claiming the iPhone could access "all parts of the internet" should be withdrawn in its current form, on grounds of false advertising.[134] In a rare public letter in April 2010, Apple CEO Steve Jobs outlined the reasoning behind the absence of Flash on the iPhone (and iPad).[135] The iPhone supports SVG, CSS, HTML Canvas, and Bonjour.[136][137] The maps application can access Google Maps in map, satellite, or hybrid form. It can also generate directions between two locations, while providing optional real-time traffic information. During the iPhone's announcement, Jobs demonstrated this feature by searching for nearby Starbucks locations and then placing a prank call to one with a single tap.[3][138] Support for walking directions, public transit, and street view was added in the version 2.2 software update, but no voice-guided navigation.[139] The iPhone 3GS and iPhone 4 can orient the map with its digital compass.[33] Apple also developed a separate application to view YouTube videos on the iPhone, which streams videos after encoding them using the H.264 codec. Simple weather and stock quotes applications also tap in to the Internet. iPhone users can and do access the Internet frequently, and in a variety of places. According to Google, the iPhone generates 50 times more search requests than any other mobile handset.[140] According to Deutsche Telekom CEO René Obermann, "The average Internet usage for an iPhone customer is more than 100 megabytes. This is 30 times the use for our average contract-based consumer customers."[141] Nielsen found that 98% of iPhone users use data services, and 88% use the internet.[11] In China, the iPhone 3G and iPhone 3GS were built and distributed without Wi-fi.[142] Text input The virtual keyboard on the original iPhone's touchscreen. For text input, the iPhone implements a virtual keyboard on the touchscreen. It has automatic spell checking and correction, predictive word capabilities, and a dynamic dictionary that learns new words. The keyboard can predict what word the user is typing and complete it, and correct for the accidental pressing of keys near the presumed desired key.[143] The keys are somewhat larger and spaced farther apart when in landscape mode, which is supported by only a limited number of applications. Touching a section of text for a brief time brings up a magnifying glass, allowing users to place the cursor in the middle of existing text. The virtual keyboard can accommodate 21 languages, including character recognition for Chinese.[144] The 3.0 update brought support for cut, copy, or pasting text, as well as landscape keyboards in more applications.[29][30] E-mail and text messages The iPhone also features an e-mail program that supports HTML e-mail, which enables the user to embed photos in an e-mail message. PDF, Word, Excel, and Powerpoint attachments to mail messages can be viewed on the phone.[45] Apple's MobileMe platform offers push email, which emulates the functionality of the popular BlackBerry email solution, for an annual subscription. Yahoo! offers a free push-email service for the iPhone. IMAP (although not Push-IMAP) and POP3 mail standards are also supported, including Microsoft Exchange[145] and Kerio Connect.[146] In the first versions of the iPhone firmware, this was accomplished by opening up IMAP on the Exchange server. Apple has also licensed Microsoft ActiveSync and now[when?] supports the platform (including push email) with the release of iPhone 2.0 firmware.[147][148] The iPhone will sync e-mail account settings over from Apple's own Mail application, Microsoft Outlook, and Microsoft Entourage, or it can be manually configured on the device itself. With the correct settings, the e-mail program can access almost any IMAP or POP3 account.[149] Text messages are presented chronologically in a mailbox format similar to Mail, which places all text from recipients together with replies. Text messages are displayed in speech bubbles (similar to iChat) under each recipient's name. The iPhone currently[when?] has built-in support for e-mail message forwarding, drafts, and direct internal camera-to-e-mail picture sending. Support for multi-recipient SMS was added in the 1.1.3 software update.[150] Support for MMS was added in the 3.0 update, but not for the original iPhone[29][30] and not in the U.S. until September 25, 2009.[151][152] Third party applications See also: iPhone SDK and App Store At WWDC 2007 on June 11, 2007 Apple announced that the iPhone would support third-party "web applications" written in Ajax that share the look and feel of the iPhone interface.[153] On October 17, 2007, Steve Jobs, in an open letter posted to Apple's "Hot News" weblog, announced that a software development kit (SDK) would be made available to third-party developers in February 2008. The iPhone SDK was officially announced and released on March 6, 2008, at the Apple Town Hall facility.[154] It is a free download, with an Apple registration, that allows developers to develop native applications for the iPhone and iPod Touch, then test them in an "iPhone simulator". However, loading an application onto a real device is only possible after paying a Apple Developer Connection membership fee. Developers are free to set any price for their applications to be distributed through the App Store, of which they will receive a 70% share.[155] Developers can also opt to release the application for free and will not pay any costs to release or distribute the application beyond the membership fee. The App Store was launched with the release of iOS 2.0, on July 11, 2008.[148] The update was free for iPhone users; owners of older iPod Touches were required to pay US$10 for it.[156] Once a developer has submitted an application to the App Store, Apple holds firm control over its distribution. Apple can halt the distribution of applications it deems inappropriate, for example, I Am Rich, a US$1000 program that simply demonstrated the wealth of its user.[157] Apple has been criticized for banning third party applications that enable a functionality that Apple does not want the iPhone to have: In 2008, Apple rejected Podcaster, which allowed iPhone users to download podcasts directly to the iPhone claiming it duplicated the functionality of iTunes.[158] Apple has since released a software update that grants this capability.[139] An iPhone 4's screen while tethering. Note the blue band at the top of the screen. NetShare, another rejected app, would have enabled users to tether their iPhone to a laptop or desktop, using its cellular network to load data for the computer.[159] Many carriers of the iPhone later globally allowed tethering before Apple officially supported it with the upgrade to the iOS 3.0, with AT&T Mobility being a relative latecomer in the United States.[160] In most cases, the carrier charges extra for tethering an iPhone. Before the SDK was released, third-parties were permitted to design "Web Apps" that would run through Safari.[161] Unsigned native applications are also available for "jailbroken" phones.[162] The ability to install native applications onto the iPhone outside of the App Store is not supported by Apple, the stated reason being that such native applications could be broken by any software update, but Apple has stated it will not design software updates specifically to break native applications other than those that perform SIM unlocking.[163] Accessibility The iPhone can enlarge text to make it more accessible for vision-impaired users,[164] and can accommodate hearing-impaired users with closed captioning and external TTY devices.[165] The iPhone 3GS also features white on black mode, VoiceOver (a screen reader), and zooming for impaired vision, and mono audio for limited hearing in one ear.[166] Apple regularly publishes Voluntary Product Accessibility Templates which explicitly state compliance with the US regulation "Section 508".[167] Intellectual property Apple has filed more than 200 patent applications related to the technology behind the iPhone.[168][169] LG Electronics claimed the iPhone's design was copied from the LG Prada. Woo-Young Kwak, head of LG Mobile Handset R&D Center, said at a press conference, “We consider that Apple copied Prada phone after the design was unveiled when it was presented in the iF Design Award and won the prize in September 2006.”[170] On September 3, 1993, Infogear filed for the U.S. trademark "I PHONE"[171] and on March 20, 1996 applied for the trademark "IPhone".[172] "I Phone" was registered in March 1998,[171] and "IPhone" was registered in 1999.[172] Since then, the I PHONE mark had been abandoned.[171] Infogear's trademarks cover "communications terminals comprising computer hardware and software providing integrated telephone, data communications and personal computer functions" (1993 filing),[171] and "computer hardware and software for providing integrated telephone communication with computerized global information networks" (1996 filing).[173] Infogear released a telephone with an integrated web browser under the name iPhone in 1998.[174] In 2000, Infogear won an infringement claim against the owners of the iphones.com domain name.[175] In June 2000, Cisco Systems acquired Infogear, including the iPhone trademark.[176] On December 18, 2006 they released a range of re-branded Voice over IP (VoIP) sets under the name iPhone.[177] In October 2002, Apple applied for the "iPhone" trademark in the United Kingdom, Australia, Singapore, and the European Union. A Canadian application followed in October 2004 and a New Zealand application in September 2006. As of October 2006 only the Singapore and Australian applications had been granted. In September 2006, a company called Ocean Telecom Services applied for an "iPhone" trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and Hong Kong, following a filing in Trinidad and Tobago.[178] As the Ocean Telecom trademark applications use exactly the same wording as Apple's New Zealand application, it is assumed that Ocean Telecom is applying on behalf of Apple.[179] The Canadian application was opposed in August 2005 by a Canadian company called Comwave who themselves applied for the trademark three months later. Comwave has been selling VoIP devices called iPhone since 2004.[176] Shortly after Steve Jobs' January 9, 2007 announcement that Apple would be selling a product called iPhone in June 2007, Cisco issued a statement that it had been negotiating trademark licensing with Apple and expected Apple to agree to the final documents that had been submitted the night before.[180] On January 10, 2007 Cisco announced it had filed a lawsuit against Apple over the infringement of the trademark iPhone, seeking an injunction in federal court to prohibit Apple from using the name.[181] More recently, Cisco claimed that the trademark lawsuit was a "minor skirmish" that was not about money, but about interoperability.[182] On February 2, 2007, Apple and Cisco announced that they had agreed to temporarily suspend litigation while they held settlement talks,[183] and subsequently announced on February 20, 2007 that they had reached an agreement. Both companies will be allowed to use the "iPhone" name[184] in exchange for "exploring interoperability" between their security, consumer, and business communications products.[185] The iPhone has also inspired several leading high-tech clones,[186] driving both Apple's popularity and consumer willingness to upgrade iPhones quickly.[187] On October 22, 2009 Nokia filed a lawsuit against Apple for infringement of its GSM, UMTS and WLAN patents. Nokia alleges that Apple has been violating ten of Nokia's patents since the iPhone's initial release.[188] Restrictions Unlocked iPhone firmware version 3.0. The serial number and Wi-Fi address have been removed from the image. Apple tightly controls certain aspects of the iPhone. The hacker community has found many workarounds, most of which are condemned by Apple and threaten to void the device's warranty.[189] "Jailbreaking" allows users to install apps not available on the App Store or modify basic functionality. SIM unlocking allows the iPhone to be used on a different carrier's network.[190] Activation The iPhone normally prevents access to its media player and web features unless it has also been activated as a phone with an authorized carrier. On July 3, 2007, Jon Lech Johansen reported on his blog that he had successfully bypassed this requirement and unlocked the iPhone's other features with a combination of custom software and modification of the iTunes binary. He published the software and offsets for others to use.[191] Unlike the original, the iPhone 3G must be activated in the store in most countries.[192] This makes the iPhone 3G more difficult, but not impossible, to hack. The need for in-store activation, as well as the huge number of first-generation iPhone and iPod Touch users upgrading to iPhone OS 2.0, caused a worldwide overload of Apple's servers on July 11, 2008, the day on which both the iPhone 3G and iPhone OS 2.0 updates as well as MobileMe were released. After the update, devices were required to connect to Apple's servers to authenticate the update, causing many devices to be temporarily unusable.[193] Apple avoided this by releasing the 3.0 software two days before the iPhone 3GS. Users on the O2 network in the United Kingdom, however, can buy the phone online and activate it via iTunes as with the previous model.[194] Even where not required, vendors usually offer activation for the buyer's convenience. In the U.S., Apple has begun to offer free shipping on both the iPhone 3G and the iPhone 3GS (when available), reversing the in-store activation requirement. Best Buy and Wal-Mart will also sell the iPhone.[195] Unlicensed third party software and jailbreaking See also: Jailbreaking for iOS and iPhone Dev Team The iPhone's operating system is designed to only run software that has an Apple-approved cryptographic signature. This restriction can be overcome by "jailbreaking" the phone,[196] which involves replacing the iPhone's firmware with a slightly modified version that does not enforce the signature check. Doing so may be a circumvention of Apple's technical protection measures.[197] Apple, in a statement to the United States Copyright Office in response to EFF lobbying for a DMCA exception for this kind of hacking, claimed that jailbreaking the iPhone would be copyright infringement due to the necessary modification of system software.[198] Jailbroken iPhones may be susceptible to computer viruses, but few such incidents have been reported.[199][200] SIM unlocking United States iPhone 3G shown with the SIM tray partially ejected. Most iPhones are sold with a SIM lock, which restricts the use of the phone to one particular carrier, a common practice with subsidized GSM phones. Unlike most GSM phones however, the phone cannot be officially unlocked by entering a code. The locked/unlocked state is maintained on Apple's servers per IMEI and is set when the iPhone is activated. While the iPhone was initially sold in the US only on the AT&T network with a SIM lock in place, various hackers have found methods to "unlock" the phone from a specific network.[201] Although AT&T is the only authorized iPhone carrier in the United States, unlocked iPhones can be used with other carriers after unlocking.[202] More than a quarter of the original iPhones sold in the United States were not registered with AT&T. Apple speculates that they were likely shipped overseas and unlocked, a lucrative market before the iPhone 3G's worldwide release.[203] iPhones are unlocked by users who wish to use other networks than AT&T's.[10][not in citation given] AT&T has stated that the "iPhone cannot be unlocked, even if you are out of contract".[202][204] On March 26, 2009 AT&T in the United States began selling the iPhone without a contract, though still SIM-locked to their network.[205] Such iPhone units are often twice as expensive as those with contracts, because Apple and AT&T lose the deferred income.[206] Outside of the United States, policies differ. United Kingdom O2, Orange, 3, Vodafone and T-Mobile in the United Kingdom are allowed to sell it, with MVNO (mobile virtual network operator) Tesco Mobile also offering deals, thus the only operator not selling the iPhone currently is MVNO Virgin Mobile. The new iPhone 4 in the UK is also sold unlocked without a contract for full retail price, for use on any network the user chooses, but only when bought at the physical Apple Stores or the Apple Online Store. Australia Four major carriers in Australia, (Three, Optus, Telstra, and Vodafone),[207] offer legitimate unlocking.[65] Denmark In Denmark it is unlocked after 6 months of contract have passed, or earlier if you pay DKK 500 (approx. €70) for unlocking. Germany In Germany, the iPhone 3GS or iPhone 4 may be purchased without a SIM-lock directly from Apple.[208] The iPhone may also be purchased through three of the four major German mobile network carriers.[209] Other countries The iPhone is also available without any SIM lock for full retail price in some countries. 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"iPhone Users Plagued by Software Problems.". The New York Times. Retrieved July 13, 2008. ^ "iPhone 3G". Apple Store (U.K.). Retrieved May 14, 2009. ^ "Apple — iPhone — Buy iPhone 3G". Apple Inc.. Retrieved June 14, 2009. ^ Krazit, Tom (October 19, 2007). "iPhone jailbreak for the masses released". CNET news. Retrieved May 14, 2009. ^ Granick, Jennifer (August 28, 2007). "Legal or Not, IPhone Hacks Might Spur Revolution". Wired. Retrieved May 14, 2009. ^ Krazit, Tom (February 23, 2009). "Apple: iPhone jailbreaking violates our copyright". News.com. Retrieved February 14, 2009. ^ Australian admits creating first iPhone virus, Brigid Andersen, ABC Online, November 9, 2009. Retrieved November 10, 2009. ^ "Jailbreaking puts iPhone owners at risk, says researcher". ^ Farivar, Cyrus (November 14, 2007). "Unlocking an iPhone". Macworld. Retrieved May 25, 2009. ^ a b Kharif, Olga (September 2, 2008). "What's Hot: Used Apple iPhones: After the iPhone 3G launch, consumers want the original, hackable iPhone, and vendors are springing up to sell them—for a premium". BusinessWeek. Retrieved March 17, 2009. ^ "Quarter of US iPhones 'unlocked'". BBC News. January 28, 2008. ^ "Answer Center: What is the unlock code for my iPhone?". AT&T. Retrieved May 13, 2009. ^ Krazit, Tom (2009-13-19). "AT&T: No-contract iPhones coming next week". CNET News. Retrieved May 14, 2009. ^ "Orange to sell iPhone SIM-free for €749". PC Retail Magazine. November 29, 2007. Retrieved January 6, 2008. ^ "iPhone 3G & iPhone 3GS – Apple Store (Australia)". Store.apple.com. Retrieved May 19, 2010. ^ "iPhone 4 & iPhone 3GS - Apple Store (Deutschland)". Store.apple.com. Retrieved 2010-11-11. ^ sueddeutsche.de GmbH, Munich, Germany (2010-10-13). "Telekom-Monopol fällt - O2 und Vodafone verkaufen iPhone in Deutschland - Digital". sueddeutsche.de. Retrieved 2010-11-11. External links Apple Inc. portal Book:Apple Inc. Books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print. Find more about iPhone on Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions from Wiktionary Images and media from Commons Learning resources from Wikiversity News stories from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Official website Technical specifications (all models) iPhone at the Open Directory Project Video of Jobs launching the iPhone at Macworld 2007 Dynamic list of Apple's phone patents iPad From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the wireless tablet computer by Apple Inc. For the retail point-of-sale device, see Fujitsu iPAD. iPad An iPad showing its home screen Developer Apple Inc. Manufacturer Foxconn (on contract)[1] Type Tablet media player/PC Release date Wi-Fi model (U.S.): April 3, 2010[2][3] Wi-Fi + 3G Model (U.S.): April 30, 2010[4] Both Models (Nine more countries): May 28, 2010[5] Units sold 7.5 million (as of 30 September 2010)[6][7] Operating system iOS 4.2.1 [8] Released November 22, 2010; 2 days ago Power Internal rechargeable non-removable 25 W·h (90 kJ) lithium-polymer battery[9] CPU 1 GHz Apple A4[9][10] Storage capacity Flash memory 16GB, 32GB, or 64GB models only[9] Memory 256 MB DRAM built into Apple A4 package (top package of PoP contains two 128 MB dies)[11] Display 1024 × 768 px (aspect ratio 4:3), 9.7 in (25 cm) diagonal, appr. 45 in2 (290 cm2), 132 PPI, XGA, LED-backlit IPS LCD[9] Graphics PowerVR SGX 535 GPU[12] Input Multi-touch touch screen, headset controls, proximity and ambient light sensors, 3-axis accelerometer, magnetometer Camera None Connectivity Wi-Fi (802.11a/b/g/n) Bluetooth 2.1 + EDR Wi-Fi + 3G model also includes: UMTS / HSDPA (Tri band–850, 1900, 2100 MHz) GSM / EDGE (Quad band–850, 900, 1800, 1900 MHz) Online services iTunes Store, App Store, MobileMe, iBookstore, Safari Dimensions 9.58 in (243 mm) (h) 7.47 in (190 mm) (w) .5 in (13 mm) (d) Weight Wi-Fi model: 1.5 lb (680 g) Wi-Fi + 3G model: 1.6 lb (730 g)[9] Related articles iPhone, iPod touch (Comparison) Website www.apple.com/ipad The iPad is a tablet computer designed and developed by Apple. It is particularly marketed as a platform for audio and visual media such as books, periodicals, movies, music, and games, as well as web content. At about 1.5 pounds (680 grams), its size and weight are between those of most contemporary smartphones and laptop computers. Apple released the iPad in April 2010, and sold 3 million of the devices in 80 days.[13] The iPad runs the same operating system as the earlier iPod Touch and iPhone. It can run its own applications as well as ones developed for the iPhone. Without modification, it will only run programs approved by Apple and distributed via its online store. Like iPhone and iPod Touch, the iPad is controlled by a multitouch display — a break from most previous tablet computers, which used a pressure-triggered stylus. The iPad uses a Wi-Fi data connection to browse the Internet, load and stream media, and install software. Some models also have a 3G wireless data connection. The device is managed and synced by iTunes on a personal computer via USB cable. Media reaction to the device has generally been neutral or positive, with more positive reaction after the device was launched. Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Hardware 2.1 Screen and input 2.2 Connectivity 2.3 Audio and output 2.4 Power and battery 2.5 Storage and SIM 2.6 Optional accessories 2.7 Technical specifications 2.8 Manufacture 3 Software 3.1 Applications 3.2 Digital rights management 3.3 Jailbreaking 4 Books, news, and magazine content 4.1 Censorship 5 Release 6 Reception 6.1 Reaction to the announcement 6.2 Reviews 6.3 Reaction to the international launch 6.4 Omitted features 6.5 Product name 6.6 Recognition 7 Usage 7.1 Business 7.2 Education 8 See also 9 References 10 External links [edit]History Apple's first tablet computer was the Newton MessagePad 100,[14][15] introduced in 1993, which led to the creation of the ARM6 processor core with Acorn Computers. Apple also developed a prototype PowerBook Duo-based tablet, the PenLite, but in order to avoid hurting MessagePad sales did not sell it.[16] Apple released several more Newton-based PDAs, and discontinued the last, the MessagePad 2100, in 1998. With the success of the introduction of portable music player iPod in 2001, Apple re-entered the mobile-computing market in 2007 with the iPhone. Smaller than the iPad but featuring a camera and mobile phone, it pioneered the multitouch finger-sensitive touchscreen interface of Apple's mobile operating system—iOS. By late 2009, the iPad's release had been rumored for several years. Mostly referred to as "Apple's tablet", iTablet and iSlate were among the speculated names.[17] The iPad was announced on January 27, 2010 by Steve Jobs at an Apple press conference at the Yerba Buena Center for the Arts in San Francisco.[18][19] Jobs later admitted that the iPad was developed before the iPhone.[20][21][22] Upon realizing that it would work just as well as a mobile phone, Jobs put development of the iPad on hold and decided to develop the iPhone instead.[23] [edit]Hardware [edit]Screen and input The iPad's touchscreen display is a 9.7 in (25 cm) liquid crystal display (1024 × 768 pixels) with fingerprint-resistant and scratch-resistant glass. Like the iPhone, the iPad is designed to be controlled by bare fingers; normal gloves and styli that prevent electrical conductivity may not be used,[24] although there are special gloves and capacitive styli designed for this use.[25][26] The display responds to two other sensors: an ambient light sensor to adjust screen brightness and a 3-axis accelerometer to sense iPad orientation and switch between portrait and landscape modes. Unlike the iPhone and iPod touch built-in applications, which work in three orientations (portrait, landscape-left and landscape-right), the iPad built-in applications support screen rotation in all four orientations (the three aforementioned ones along with upside-down),[27] meaning that the device has no intrinsic "native" orientation; only the relative position of the home button changes. The iPad has a switch to lock out the screen rotation function (reportedly to prevent unintended rotation when the user is lying down).[28] There are a total of four physical switches, including a home button below the display that returns the user to the main menu, and three plastic physical switches on the sides: wake/sleep and volume up/down, along with the screen rotation lock.[9] Ars Technica noted the similarity between the iPad and Star Trek's fictional PADD tablet computer, both in name and functionality.[29] [edit]Connectivity Steve Jobs, Apple CEO, introducing the iPad The iPad can use Wi-Fi network trilateration from Skyhook Wireless to provide location information to applications such as Google Maps. The 3G model contains A-GPS to allow its position to be calculated with GPS or relative to nearby cellphone towers; it also has a black plastic accent on the back side to improve 3G radio sensitivity.[30] For wired connectivity, the iPad has a dock connector; it lacks the Ethernet and USB ports of larger computers.[9] [edit]Audio and output Back of the iPad 3G The iPad has two internal speakers that push mono sound through two small sealed channels to the three audio ports carved into the bottom-right of the unit.[12] A volume switch is on the right side of the unit. A 3.5-mm TRS connector audio-out jack on the top-left corner of the device provides stereo sound for headphones with or without microphones and/or volume controls. The iPad also contains a microphone that can be used for voice recording. The built-in Bluetooth 2.1 + EDR interface allows wireless headphones and keyboards to be used with the iPad.[31] However, the iOS does not currently support file transfer via Bluetooth.[32] iPad also features 1024 x 768 VGA video output for connecting an external display or television.[33] [edit]Power and battery iPad in the iPad Keyboard Dock The iPad uses an internal rechargeable lithium-ion polymer battery. The batteries are made in Taiwan by Simplo Technology, which makes 60% of them, and Dynapack International Technology.[34] The iPad is designed to be charged with a high current (2 amperes) using the included USB 10 W power adapter. While it can be charged by a standard USB port from a computer, these are limited to 500 milliamperes (half an amp). As a result, if the iPad is turned on while being charged with a normal USB computer port, it will charge much more slowly, if at all. Apple claims that the iPad's battery can provide up to 10 hours of video, 140 hours of audio playback, or one month on standby. Like any battery technology, the iPad's LiPo battery loses capacity over time, but is not designed to be user-replaceable. In a program similar to the battery-replacement program for the iPod and the original iPhone, Apple will replace an iPad that does not hold an electrical charge with a refurbished iPad for a fee of $99 (plus $6.95 shipping).[35][36] [edit]Storage and SIM The iPad was released with three options for internal storage size: a 16, 32, or 64 GB flash drive. All data is stored on the flash drive and there is no option to expand storage. Apple sells a camera connection kit with an SD card reader, but it can only be used to transfer photos and videos.[37] The side of the Wi-Fi + 3G model has a micro-SIM slot (not mini-SIM). Unlike the iPhone, which is usually sold locked to specific carriers, the 3G iPad is sold unlocked and can be used with any compatible GSM carrier.[38] Japan is the exception to this, where the iPad 3G is locked to Softbank.[39] In the U.S., data network access via T-Mobile's network is limited to slower EDGE cellular speeds because T-Mobile's 3G Network uses different frequencies.[40][41] [edit]Optional accessories The iPad in its case Apple offers several iPad accessories, including:[9] iPad Keyboard Dock with hardware keyboard, 30-pin connector, and audio jack iPad Case which can be used to stand the iPad in various positions iPad Dock with 30-pin connector and audio jack iPad Dock Connector to VGA Adapter for external monitor or projector iPad Camera Connection Kit including a USB Type A connector adapter and an SD card reader, for transferring photos and videos iPad 10W USB Power Adapter with 2 A output (10 W) [edit]Technical specifications Model Wi-Fi Wi-Fi + 3G Announcement date January 27, 2010[18] Release date April 3, 2010[3] April 30, 2010[4] Display 9.7 inches (25 cm) multitouch display at a resolution of 1024 × 768 pixels with LED backlighting and a fingerprint and scratch resistant coating.[9] Processor 1 GHz Apple A4 System on a chip[10] Storage Fixed capacity of 16, 32, or 64 GB[9] Wireless Wi-Fi (802.11a/b/g/n), Bluetooth 2.1+EDR[9] No wireless wide-area network interface 3G cellular HSDPA, 2G cellular EDGE[9] Geolocation WiFi[9]/Apple location databases[42] Assisted GPS, Apple databases,[42] cellular network[9] Environmental sensors Accelerometer, ambient light sensor, magnetometer (for digital compass)[9] Operating system iOS 4.2.1 [8] Battery Built-in lithium-ion polymer battery; (10 hours video,[9] 140 hours audio,[43] 1 month standby[44]) Weight 1.5 lb (680 g)[9] 1.6 lb (730 g)[9] Dimensions 242.8 × 189.7 × 13.4 mm (9.56 × 7.47 × 0.53 in)[9] Mechanical keys Home, sleep, screen rotation lock (mute switch on iOS4.2, volume).[9] [edit]Manufacture The iPad is assembled by Foxconn, which also manufactures Apple's iPod, iPhone and Mac Mini, in its largest plant in Shenzhen, China.[45] iSuppli estimated that each iPad 16 GB Wi-Fi version costs $259.60 to manufacture, a total that excludes research, development, licensing and patent costs.[46] Apple does not disclose the makers of iPad components, but teardown reports and analysis from industry insiders indicate that various parts and their suppliers include: Apple A4 SoC: Samsung.[9][47] NAND flash RAM chips: Toshiba; except Samsung for the 64 GB model.[48][49] Touch-screen chips: Broadcom.[48] IPS Display: LG Display Touch panels: Wintek. (Got the job after TPK Touch Solutions was unable to fulfill its orders, delaying the iPad's release from late March to early April.[50]) Case: Catcher Technologies.[51] LCD drivers: Novatek Microelectronics.[52] Batteries: 60% are made in Taiwan by Simplo Technology, 40% by Dynapack International.[34][53] Accelerometer: STMicroelectronics.[54] [edit]Software Like the iPhone, with which it shares a development environment (iPhone SDK, or software development kit, version 3.2 onwards),[55] the iPad only runs its own software, software downloaded from Apple's App Store, and software written by developers who have paid for a developer's license on registered devices.[56] The iPad runs almost all third-party iPhone applications, displaying them at iPhone size or enlarging them to fill the iPad's screen.[57] Developers may also create or modify apps to take advantage of the iPad's features.[58] Application developers use iPhone SDK for developing applications for iPad.[59] The iPad has been shipping with a customized iPad-only version of iPhone OS, dubbed v3.2. On September 1, it was announced the iPad would get iOS 4.2 by November 2010.[60] Apple released iOS 4.2.1 to the public on November 22.[61] [edit]Applications The iPad comes with several applications, including Safari, Mail, Photos, Video, YouTube, iPod, iTunes, App Store, iBooks, Maps, Notes, Calendar, Contacts, and Spotlight Search.[62] Several are improved versions of applications developed for the iPhone. The iPad syncs with iTunes on a Mac or Windows PC.[18] Apple ported its iWork suite from the Mac to the iPad, and sells pared down versions of Pages, Numbers, and Keynote apps in the App Store.[63] Although the iPad is not designed to replace a mobile phone, a user can use a wired headset or the built-in speaker and microphone and place phone calls over Wi-Fi or 3G using a VoIP application.[64] The iPad has lots of third party applications available for it; as of September 1, 2010 there were 25000 iPad specific apps on the AppStore.[65] [edit]Digital rights management For more details on the digital rights management, see iOS. The iPad employs DRM intended to lock purchased content - including TV shows, movies, and apps-- to operate only on Apple's platform. Also, the iPad's development model requires anyone creating an app for the iPad to sign a non-disclosure agreement and pay for a developer subscription. Furthermore, critics argue Apple's centralized app approval process and control and lockdown of the platform itself could stifle software innovation. Of particular concern to digital rights advocates is the ability for Apple to remotely disable or delete apps, media, or data on the iPad at will.[66][67][68] Digital rights advocates, including the Free Software Foundation, Electronic Frontier Foundation, and computer engineer and activist Brewster Kahle, have criticized the iPad for its digital rights restrictions. Paul Sweeting, an analyst with GigaOM, is quoted by National Public Radio saying, "With the iPad, you have the anti-Internet in your hands. [...] It offers [the major media companies] the opportunity to essentially re-create the old business model, wherein they are pushing content to you on their terms rather than you going out and finding content, or a search engine discovering content for you." But Sweeting also thinks Apple's limitations make its products feel like living in a safe neighborhood, saying, "Apple is offering you a gated community where there's a guard at the gate, and there's probably maid service, too." Laura Sydell, the article's author, concludes, "As more consumers have fears about security on the Internet, viruses and malware, they may be happy to opt for Apple's gated community."[69] [edit]Jailbreaking For more details on iPad Jailbreaking, see iOS jailbreaking. Like other iOS Devices, the iPad can be "jailbroken", allowing applications and programs that are not authorized by Apple to run on the device.[70][71] Once jailbroken, iPad users are able to download many applications previously unavailable through the App Store via unofficial installers such as Cydia, as well as illegally pirated applications.[71] Apple claims jailbreaking voids their factory warranty on the device in the United States.[71][72] [edit]Books, news, and magazine content Reading a book on the iPad Further information: iBookstore The iPad has an optional iBooks application that can be downloaded from the App Store, which displays books and other ePub-format content downloaded from the iBookstore.[73] For the iPad launch on April 3, 2010, the iBookstore is available only in the United States.[18][3][62] Several major book publishers including Penguin Books, HarperCollins, Simon & Schuster and Macmillan have committed to publishing books for the iPad.[74] In February 2010, Condé Nast Publications said it would sell iPad subscriptions for its GQ, Vanity Fair and Wired magazines by June.[75] In April 2010, The New York Times announced it will begin publishing daily on the iPad.[76] As of October 2010, The New York Times iPad app is ad-supported and available for free without a paid subscription, but will transition to a subscription-based model in 2011.[77] Major news organizations, such as The Wall Street Journal, BBC, and Reuters have released iPad applications, to varying degrees of success.[78] [edit]Censorship Further information: Apple App Store censorship Apple's App Store, which provides iPhone and iPad applications, imposes censorship of content, which has become an issue for book publishers and magazines seeking to use the platform. The Guardian described the role of Apple as analogous to that of the distributor WH Smith, a main distributor which for many years imposed content restrictions on British publishers.[79] Due to the exclusion of porn from the App Store, YouPorn and others changed their video format from Flash to H.264 and HTML5 specifically for the iPad.[80][81] In an e-mail exchange[82] with Ryan Tate from Valleywag, Steve Jobs claimed that the iPad offers "freedom from porn", leading to many upset replies including Adbustings in Berlin by artist Johannes P. Osterhoff[83] and in San Francisco during WWDC10.[84] [edit]Release Apple began taking pre-orders for the iPad from U.S. customers on March 12, 2010.[3] The only major change to the device between its announcement and being available to pre-order was the change of the behavior of the side switch from sound muting to that of a screen rotation lock.[85] The Wi-Fi version of the iPad went on sale in the United States on April 3, 2010.[3][86] The Wi-Fi + 3G version was released on April 30.[4][3][4] 3G service in the United States is provided by AT&T and was initially sold with two prepaid contract-free data plan options: one for unlimited data and the other for 250 MB per month at half the price.[87][88] On June 2, 2010, AT&T announced that effective June 7 the unlimited plan would be replaced for new customers with a 2 GB plan at slightly lower cost; existing customers would have the option to keep the unlimited plan.[89] The plans are activated on the iPad itself and can be canceled at any time.[90] The iPad was launched in Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Spain, Switzerland and the United Kingdom on May 28.[5][91] Online pre-orders in those countries began on May 10.[4] Apple released the iPad in Austria, Belgium, Hong Kong, Ireland, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand and Singapore on 23 July 2010.[92] Israel briefly prohibited importation of the iPad because of concerns that its Wi-Fi might interfere with other devices.[93] On September 17, 2010 the iPad officially launched in China.[94] The device was initially popular with 300,000 iPads being sold on their first day of availability.[95] By May 3, 2010 Apple had sold a million iPads,[96] this was in half the time it took Apple to sell the same number of original iPhones.[97] By May 31, 2010 Apple had sold two million iPads[98] and by June 22, 2010 they had sold 3 million.[13][99] Between July 1 and September 30, 2010 Apple sold a further 4.2 million iPads. During the October 18, 2010 Financial Conference Call, Steve Jobs announced that Apple had sold more iPads than Macs for the Fiscal Quarter.[100] The South Korean Minister of Culture and Tourism, Yu In-chon was criticized for using an "unapproved" iPad on a public occasion; it is illegal to use an unapproved electronic device in South Korea.[101] The iPad was initially only available online at The Apple Store as well as the company's retail locations. The iPad has since been available for purchase through many retailers including Amazon, Wal-Mart, Best Buy, Verizon, and AT&T. [edit]Reception [edit]Reaction to the announcement Media reaction to the iPad announcement was mixed. Walt Mossberg wrote, "It's about the software, stupid", meaning hardware features and build are less important to the iPad's success than software and user interface, his first impressions of which were largely positive. Mossberg also called the price "modest" for a device of its capabilities, and praised the ten-hour battery life.[102] Others, including PC Advisor and The Sydney Morning Herald, wrote that the iPad would also compete with proliferating netbooks, most of which use Microsoft Windows.[103][104] The base model's $499 price was lower than pre-release estimates by the tech press, Wall Street analysts, and Apple's competitors, all of whom were expecting a much higher entry price point.[105][106][107] Yair Reiner said the iPad will compete against e-book devices such as the Barnes & Noble Nook and the Amazon Kindle while offering 70 percent of revenue to publishers, the same arrangement afforded developers on the Apple App Store.[108] Notably, a week before the iPad's expected release, the Amazon Kindle store increased publishers' revenue share to 70 percent as well.[109] Several days after the unveiling, Stephen Fry said people must use the iPad to truly appreciate its purpose and quality and commented that common criticisms of the device fall away after use. Fry noted the iPad's speed and responsiveness, the intuitive interface and the richness and detail of the display.[110] Along with Steve Jobs' statements in the announcement, members of the media also said that it established a new class of devices between smartphones and laptops.[111][112] [edit]Reviews Reviews of the iPad have been generally favorable. Walt Mossberg of The Wall Street Journal called it a "pretty close" laptop killer.[113] David Pogue of The New York Times wrote a "dual" review, one part for technology-minded people, and the other part for non-technology-minded people. In the former section, he notes that a laptop offers more features for a cheaper price than the iPad. In his review for the latter audience, however, he claims that if his readers like the concept of the device and can understand what its intended uses are, then they will enjoy using the device.[114] PC Magazine's Tim Gideon wrote, "you have yourself a winner" that "will undoubtedly be a driving force in shaping the emerging tablet landscape."[115] Michael Arrington of TechCrunch said, "the iPad beats even my most optimistic expectations. This is a new category of device. But it also will replace laptops for many people."[112] PC World criticized the iPad's slim file-sharing and printing abilities,[116] and Ars Technica said sharing files with a computer is "without a doubt one of our least favorite parts of the iPad experience."[117] [edit]Reaction to the international launch On May 28, 2010 the iPad was released in Australia, Canada, Japan as well as several larger European countries. Media reaction to the launch was mixed. The media noted the positive response from fans for the device with thousands of people queued on the first day of sale in a number of these countries.[118][119] The media also praised the quantity of applications, as well as the bookstore and other media applications.[120][121] In contrast they criticized the iPad for being a closed system and mentioned that the iPad faces competition from Android based tablets.[118] With regards to its books application The Independent criticized the iPad for not being as readable in bright light as paper. However they also praised the device for being able to store a large number of different books.[120] [edit]Omitted features CNET and Gizmodo listed features that are missing from the iPad that they believe customers expect, including a camera for video chat, Adobe Flash support, a longer and narrower "widescreen" aspect ratio suitable for watching widescreen movies, and the ability to multitask (run more than one application at once), a USB port, HDMI output, and a more flexible wired-data port than the iPod dock connector.[56][122] According to Apple's iOS 4 unveiling and demonstration on April 8, 2010, as well as the Keynote presentation available on their website, multitasking will be available to all iPad users with a software update in the fall of 2010.[123][124] The Seattle Post-Intelligencer and Gizmodo noted that the iPad will officially support installing software only from the App Store.[56][125] CNET also criticised the iPad for its apparent lack of wireless sync which other portable devices such as Microsoft's Zune have had for a number of years. The built-in iTunes app is able to download from the Internet as well.[126] CNN and Wired News defended Apple's omission of a number of features, including support for Adobe Flash, noting that YouTube and Vimeo have switched to H.264 for video streaming. They also said that "[multitasking] will not matter at all to the target user", as its absence is responsible for "a large part of [the iPad's] ten-hour battery life." Multitasking will be added in the next iPad software update.[124] Of the aspect ratio: "16:9 ratio in [portrait mode] would look oddly tall and skinny ... [4:3 is] a compromise, and a good one." Of the lack of a USB port: "The iPad is meant to be an easy-to-use appliance, not an all-purpose computer. A USB port would mean installing drivers for printers, scanners and anything else you might hook up." [127][128] People have been divided over whether to consider the iPad a personal computer. Forrester Research has argued that the iPad should be considered a form of personal computer in spite of Apple's restrictions on creating and editing files with the iPad.[129] In contrast PC World have argued that the iPad isn't a personal computer due to it omitting several key features including multitasking and support for Adobe Flash.[130] [edit]Product name Like the iPhone, the iPad shares its name with existing products. The most publicized is the Fujitsu iPAD, a mobile multi-functional device sold to retailers to help clerks verify prices, check inventory, and close sales. The Japanese company Fujitsu introduced the iPAD in 2002, and the following year applied for the trademark, but the firm found the mark was already owned by Mag-Tek. Fujitsu's trademark application was listed as "abandoned" in April 2009, and the ownership of the mark is unclear. Fujitsu consulted attorneys over what, if any, action it might take.[131][132] On March 17, 2010 the Fujitsu iPAD U.S. trademark was transferred to Apple.[133] In the first days after the iPad's announcement, some media and many online commenters criticized the name "iPad", noting its similarity to "pad", the common name for a sanitary napkin.[134][135][136][137] Shortly after the launch announcement, the hashtag "iTampon" became the number-two trending topic on the social networking site Twitter.[136][138] [edit]Recognition The iPad was selected by Time Magazine as one the 50 Best Inventions of the Year 2010.[139] [edit]Usage [edit]Business While the iPad is mostly used by consumers it also has been taken up by business users. Some companies are adopting iPads in their business offices by distributing or making available the iPads to employees. Examples of uses in the workplace include attorneys responding to clients, medical professionals accessing health records during patient exams, and managers approving employee requests.[140][141][142] A survey by Frost & Sullivan shows that iPad usage in office workplaces is linked to the goals of increased employee productivity, reduced paperwork, and increased revenue. The research firm estimates that "The mobile-office application market in North America may reach $6.85 billion in 2015, up from an estimated $1.76 billion [in 2010]."[143] [edit]Education The iPad has several uses in the classroom,[144] and has been praised as a valuable tool for homeschooling.[145][146] Soon after the iPad was released, it was reported that 81% of the top book apps were for children.[147] The iPad has also been called a revolutionary tool to help children with autism learn how to communicate and socialize more easily. [148] Many colleges and universities have also used the iPad. Youngstown State University in Youngstown, Ohio began offering three-hour rentals for the iPad for its Fall 2010 semester, in addition to rentals for the Amazon Kindle, laptop computers, and flip cameras.[149] [edit]See also Apple Inc. portal Book:Apple Inc. Books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print. Tablet PC - general tablet PCs. Comparison of e-book readers Comparison of portable media players Comparison of tablet PCs List of iOS devices Flexible electronics Pen computing for a broad history of gesture-based user interfaces [edit]References ^ Wieland Wagner (May 28, 2010). "iPad Factory in the Firing Line: Worker Suicides Have Electronics Maker Uneasy in China". Spiegel.de. Retrieved May 31, 2010. ^ Matt Buchanan (March 5, 2010). "Official: iPad Launching Here April 3, Pre-Orders March 12". Gizmodo. Retrieved March 4, 2010. ^ a b c d e f Apple (March 5, 2010). "iPad Available in US on April 3". Press release. 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Retrieved May 31, 2010. ^ a b David Phelan (May 26, 2010). "The iPad: what is it good for?". The Independent (London). Retrieved May 31, 2010. ^ Kate Bevan (May 31, 2010). "The best iPad media apps". The Guardian (London: Guardian Media Group). Retrieved June 10, 2010. ^ Scott Stein (January 27, 2010). "10 things Netbooks still do better than an iPad". CNET. Retrieved January 31, 2010. ^ "Get a sneak peek into the future of iPhone OS". Apple Inc. Retrieved May 9, 2010. ^ a b "Apple: Multitasking coming to the iPhone this summer, iPad in the fall". Yahoo. April 8, 2010. Retrieved May 8, 2010. ^ Nick Eaton. "iPad's downside is Microsoft's upside: third-party apps". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Retrieved February 1, 2010. ^ Matt Rosoff (January 30, 2010). "How to make the iPad a better music device". CNET. Retrieved March 2, 2010. ^ Charlie Sorrel (January 28, 2010). "10 things missing from the iPad". Wired News. Retrieved February 3, 2010. ^ Charlie Sorrel (January 28, 2010). "Ten things missing from the iPad". CNN. Retrieved February 19, 2010. ^ Arik Hesseldahl (June 17, 2010). "Forrester: Tablets Will Outsell Netbooks By 2012". BusinessWeek. Retrieved June 20, 2010. ^ Jason Cross (January 27, 2010). "Apple's iPad Mistakes". PC World. Retrieved June 26, 2010. ^ Tabuchi, Hiroko (January 28, 2010). "IPad? That's So 2002, Fujitsu Says". The New York Times. Retrieved January 29, 2010. ^ Nilay Patel (January 28, 2010). "Apple and Fujitsu inevitably caught up in iPad trademark dispute". Engadget. Retrieved February 4, 2010. ^ "Trademark Assignment Abstract of Title". United States Patent and Trademark Office. Retrieved March 27, 2010. ^ Priya Ganapati (January 27, 2010). "Would You Buy an iPad? Wired Readers Weigh In". Wired News (Condé Nast). Retrieved February 1, 2010. ^ Dawn Chmielewski and Alex Pham (January 27, 2010). "Women mock the iPad, calling it iTampon". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved February 1, 2010. ^ a b "The iPad? Also available with wings?". France 24. Agence France-Presse. January 27, 2010. Retrieved February 1, 2010. ^ Zennie Abraham (January 27, 2010). "Apple iPad tablet called iTampon on Twitter; women tweet". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved February 1, 2010. ^ Brian Barrett (January 27, 2010). "iTampon Is the #2 Trending Topic on Twitter". Gizmodo. Retrieved February 1, 2010. ^ Harry McCracken (2010-11-11). "The 50 Best Inventions of 2010: iPad". Time Magazine. Retrieved 2010-11-17. ^ "iPad creeping into business offices". Computer World. September 13, 2010. ^ "Rise Of The Tablet Computer". Forbes. September 13, 2010. ^ Worthen, Ben (August 24, 2010). "Businesses Add iPads to Their Briefcases". The Wall Street Journal. ^ "MicroStrategy's Corporate Apps Boost Productivity". Bloomberg Businessweek. November 1, 2010. "About 42 percent of respondents in the survey, which was released in August, sought an increase in user productivity, followed by reduced paperwork (39 percent), and increased revenue (37 percent). The mobile-office application market in North America may reach $6.85 billion in 2015, up from an estimated $1.76 billion this year, Frost & Sullivan estimates." ^ Teleread.com: Teaching with the iPad. Retrieved October 1, 2010. ^ Spotty Banana: iPad in the Homeschool.. Retrieved October 1, 2010. ^ How Will the Apple iPad Change Our Kids' Lives?, Wired.com. Retrieved October 1, 2010. ^ 81 Percent of Top Book Apps Are Kids Titles, AOL News. Retrieved October 1, 2010. ^ iHelp for Autism, San Francisco Weekly. Retrieved October 1, 2010. ^ Shelly Xiaoli Zhu, Library Webmaster (2010-09-01). "blogs in Library". Maag.ysu.edu. Retrieved 2010-11-11. Mac OS X From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "OSX" redirects here. For other uses, see OSX (disambiguation). Mac OS X Screenshot of Mac OS X v10.6 "Snow Leopard" Company / developer Apple Inc. Programmed in C, C++, Objective-C[1][2] OS family Mac OS, Unix[3][4][5] Working state Current Source model Closed source (with open source components) Initial release 24 March 2001; 9 years ago Latest stable release 10.6.5 / 10 November 2010; 13 days ago Marketing target Personal computing Available language(s) Multi-lingual Update method Apple Software Update Supported platforms IA-32 and x86-64: from version 10.4 PowerPC: 32-bit & 64-bit up through version 10.5 Kernel type Hybrid based on the Mach microkernel Default user interface Graphical (Aqua) License Proprietary EULA Preceded by Mac OS 9 Official website Official website Mac OS X (pronounced /ˈmæk ˌoʊ ˌɛs ˈtɛn/ mak oh es ten)[6] is a series of Unix-based operating systems and graphical user interfaces developed, marketed, and sold by Apple Inc. Since 2002, Mac OS X has been included with all new Macintosh computer systems. It is the successor to Mac OS 9, released in 1999, the final release of the "classic" Mac OS, which had been Apple's primary operating system since 1984. Mac OS X, whose X is the Roman numeral for 10 and is a prominent part of its brand identity, is a Unix-based graphical operating system,[7] built on technologies developed at NeXT between the second half of the 1980s and Apple's purchase of the company in late 1996. From its sixth release Mac OS X v10.5 "Leopard" and onwards, every release of Mac OS X gained UNIX 03 certification while running on Intel processors.[3][4] The first version released was Mac OS X Server 1.0 in 1999, and a desktop-oriented version, Mac OS X v10.0 "Cheetah" followed on March 24, 2001. Releases of Mac OS X are named after big cats: for example, Mac OS X v10.6 is usually referred to by Apple and users as "Snow Leopard". The server edition, Mac OS X Server, is architecturally identical to its desktop counterpart, and includes tools to facilitate management of workgroups of Mac OS X machines, and to provide access to network services. These tools include a mail transfer agent, a Samba server, an LDAP server, a domain name server, and others. It is pre-loaded on Apple's Xserve server hardware, but can be run on almost all of Apple's current selling computer models.[8] Apple also produces specialized versions of Mac OS X for use on its consumer devices. iOS, which is based off Mac OS X, runs on the iPhone, iPod Touch,[9] iPad, and the 2nd generation Apple TV[10]. An unnamed variant of Mac OS X powered the 1st generation Apple TV.[11] Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Description 3 Compatibility 3.1 Software 3.2 Hardware 3.3 Apple–Intel transition 4 Features 5 Versions 5.1 Public Beta: "Kodiak" 5.2 Version 10.0: "Cheetah" 5.3 Version 10.1: "Puma" 5.4 Version 10.2: "Jaguar" 5.5 Version 10.3: "Panther" 5.6 Version 10.4: "Tiger" 5.7 Version 10.5: "Leopard" 5.8 Version 10.6: "Snow Leopard" 5.9 Version 10.7: "Lion" 6 See also 7 References 8 External links History Main article: History of Mac OS X Mac OS X is based upon the Mach kernel.[12] Certain parts from FreeBSD's and NetBSD's implementation of Unix were incorporated in NeXTSTEP, the core of Mac OS X. NeXTSTEP was the object-oriented operating system developed by Steve Jobs' company NeXT after he left Apple in 1985.[13] While Jobs was away from Apple, Apple tried to create a "next-generation" OS through the Taligent, Copland and Gershwin projects, with little success.[14] Eventually, NeXT's OS, then called OPENSTEP, was selected to be the basis for Apple's next OS, and Apple purchased NeXT outright.[15] Steve Jobs returned to Apple as interim CEO, and later became CEO, shepherding the transformation of the programmer-friendly OPENSTEP into a system that would be adopted by Apple's primary market of home users and creative professionals. The project was first known as Rhapsody and was later renamed to Mac OS X.[16] Mac OS X Server 1.x, was incompatible with software designed for the original Mac OS and had no support for Apple's own IEEE 1394 interface (FireWire). Mac OS X 10.x included more backward compatibility and functionality by including the Carbon API as well as FireWire support. As the operating system evolved, it moved away from the legacy Mac OS to an emphasis on new "digital lifestyle" applications such as the iLife suite, enhanced business applications (iWork), and integrated home entertainment (the Front Row media center).[17] Each version also included modifications to the general interface, such as the brushed metal appearance added in version 10.3, the non-pinstriped titlebar appearance in version 10.4, and in 10.5 the removal of the previous brushed metal styles in favor of the "Unified" gradient window style.[18][19] Description Box artwork for Mac OS X. Left to right: Cheetah/Puma (1), Jaguar (2), Panther (3), Tiger (4), Leopard (5), and Snow Leopard (6). Mac OS X is the tenth major version of Apple's operating system for Macintosh computers. Previous Macintosh operating systems were named using Arabic numerals, e.g. Mac OS 8 and Mac OS 9. The letter X in Mac OS X's name refers to the number 10, a Roman numeral. It is therefore correctly pronounced "ten" (/ˈtɛn/) in this context, though "X" (/ˈɛks/) is also a common pronunciation.[6][20] Mac OS X's core is a POSIX compliant operating system (OS) built on top of the XNU kernel, with standard Unix facilities available from the command line interface. Apple has released this family of software as a free and open source operating system named Darwin. On top of Darwin, Apple layered a number of components, including the Aqua interface and the Finder, to complete the GUI-based operating system which is Mac OS X.[7] Mac OS X introduced a number of new capabilities to provide a more stable and reliable platform than its predecessor, Mac OS 9. For example, pre-emptive multitasking and memory protection improved the system's ability to run multiple applications simultaneously without them interrupting or corrupting each other.[21] Many aspects of Mac OS X's architecture are derived from Openstep, which was designed to be portable, to ease the transition from one platform to another. For example, Nextstep was ported from the original 68k-based NeXT workstations to x86 and other architectures before NeXT was purchased by Apple,[22] and OpenStep was later ported to the PowerPC architecture as part of the Rhapsody project. The most visible change was the Aqua theme. The use of soft edges, translucent colors, and pinstripes – similar to the hardware design of the first iMacs – brought more texture and color to the user interface when compared to what OS 9 and OS X Server 1.0's "Platinum" appearance had offered. According to John Siracusa, an editor of Ars Technica, the introduction of Aqua and its departure from the then conventional look "hit like a ton of bricks."[23] Bruce Tognazzini (who founded the original Apple Human Interface Group) said that the Aqua interface in Mac OS X v10.0 represented a step backwards in usability compared with the original Mac OS interface.[24][25] Third-party developers started producing skins for customizable applications for Mac and other operating systems which mimicked the Aqua appearance. To some extent, Apple has used the successful transition to this new design as leverage, at various times threatening legal action against people who make or distribute software with an interface the company claims is derived from its copyrighted design.[26] Mac OS X Architecture implements a layered framework.[27] The layered framework aids rapid development of applications by providing existing code for common tasks. Mac OS X includes its own software development tools, most prominently an integrated development environment called Xcode. Xcode provides interfaces to compilers that support several programming languages including C, C++, Objective-C, and Java. For the Apple–Intel transition, it was modified so that developers could build their applications as a universal binary, which provides compatibility with both the Intel-based and PowerPC-based Macintosh lines.[28] The Darwin sub-system in Mac OS X is in charge of managing the filesystem, which includes the Unix permissions layer. In 2003 and 2005, two Macworld editors expressed criticism of the permission scheme; Ted Landau called misconfigured permissions "the most common frustration" in Mac OS X,[29] while Rob Griffiths suggested that some users may even have to reset permissions every day, a process which can take up to 15 minutes.[30] More recently, another Macworld editor, Dan Frakes, called the procedure of repairing permissions vastly overused.[31] He argues that Mac OS X typically handles permissions properly without user interference, and resetting permissions should just be tried when problems emerge.[32] As of September 2010, Mac OS X is the second most active general-purpose operating system in use on the World Wide Web, after Microsoft Windows, with an 8.3% usage share according to statistics compiled by W3Counter.[33] It is the most successful UNIX-like desktop operating system on the web, estimated at over 5 times the usage of Linux with 1.5%.[33] See also Usage share of operating systems. Eighteen languages are available as the "base" language (that which is used for sub-user environments, such as the user login screen) at the first screen of the installation DVD. All of the eighteen user languages for the system menus, messages, and other functions are installed by default and can be chosen from the System Preferences. As of OS 10.6, the languages are English, Japanese, French, German, Spanish, Italian, Dutch, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Finnish, Traditional Chinese, Simplified Chinese, Korean, Brazilian Portuguese, European Portuguese, Russian, and Polish. Input methods for typing in dozens of scripts can be chosen independently of the system language.[34] Compatibility Software The APIs that Mac OS X inherited from OpenStep are not backward compatible with earlier versions of Mac OS. These APIs were created as the result of a 1993 collaboration between NeXT Computer and Sun Microsystems and are now referred to by Apple as Cocoa. This heritage is highly visible for Cocoa developers, since the "NS" prefix is ubiquitous in the framework, standing variously for Nextstep or NeXT/Sun. The official OpenStep API, published in September 1994, was the first to split the API between Foundation and Application Kit and the first to use the "NS" prefix.[22] Apple's Rhapsody project would have required all new development to use these APIs, causing much outcry among existing Mac developers. All Mac software that did not receive a complete rewrite to the new framework would run in the equivalent of the Classic environment. To permit a smooth transition from Mac OS 9 to Mac OS X, the Carbon Application Programming Interface (API) was created. Applications written with Carbon can be executed natively on both systems. Carbon was not included in the first product sold as Mac OS X, Mac OS X Server (now known as Mac OS X Server 1.x). Mac OS X also used to support the Java Platform as a "preferred software package" – in practice this means that applications written in Java fit as neatly into the operating system as possible while still being cross-platform compatible, and that graphical user interfaces written in Swing look almost exactly like native Cocoa interfaces. Traditionally, Cocoa programs have been mostly written in Objective-C, with Java as an alternative. However, on July 11, 2005, Apple announced that "features added to Cocoa in Mac OS X versions later than 10.4 will not be added to the Cocoa-Java programming interface."[35] Since Mac OS X is POSIX compliant, many software packages written for the * BSDs or Linux can be recompiled to run on it. Projects such as Fink, MacPorts and pkgsrc provide pre-compiled or pre-formatted packages. Since version 10.3, Mac OS X has included X11.app, Apple's version of the X Window System graphical interface for Unix applications, as an optional component during installation.[36] Up to and including Mac OS X v10.4 (Tiger), Apple's implementation was based on the X11 Licensed XFree86 4.3 and X11R6.6. All bundled versions of X11 feature a window manager which is similar to the Mac OS X look-and-feel and has fairly good integration with Mac OS X, also using the native Quartz rendering system. Earlier versions of Mac OS X (in which X11 has not been bundled) can also run X11 applications using XDarwin. With the introduction of version 10.5 Apple switched to the X.org variant of X11.[37] Hardware For the early releases of Mac OS X, the standard hardware platform supported was the full line of Macintosh computers (laptop, desktop, or server) based on PowerPC G3, G4, and G5 processors. Later versions discontinued support for some older hardware; for example, Panther does not support "beige" G3s,[38] and Tiger does not support systems that pre-date Apple's introduction of integrated FireWire ports (the ports themselves are not a functional requirement). Mac OS X v10.5 "Leopard", introduced October 2007, has dropped support for all PowerPC G3 processors and for PowerPC G4 processors with clock rates below 867 MHz. Mac OS X v10.6 "Snow Leopard" supports Macs with Intel processors, not PowerPC. Tools such as XPostFacto and patches applied to the installation disc have been developed by third parties to enable installation of newer versions of Mac OS X on systems not officially supported by Apple. This includes a number of pre-G3 Power Macintosh systems that can be made to run up to and including Mac OS X 10.2 Jaguar, all G3-based Macs which can run up to and including Tiger, and sub-867 MHz G4 Macs can run Leopard by removing the restriction from the installation DVD or entering a command in the Mac's Open Firmware interface to tell the Leopard Installer that it has a clock rate of 867 MHz or greater. Except for features requiring specific hardware (e.g. graphics acceleration, DVD writing), the operating system offers the same functionality on all supported hardware. PowerPC versions of Mac OS X prior to Leopard retain compatibility with older Mac OS applications by providing an emulation environment called Classic, which allows users to run Mac OS 9 as a process within Mac OS X, so that most older applications run as they would under the older operating system. Classic is not supported on Intel-based Macs or in Mac OS X v10.5 "Leopard", but users still requiring Classic applications on Intel Macs can use the SheepShaver emulator to run Mac OS 9 on top of Leopard. Apple–Intel transition Main article: Apple–Intel transition In April 2002, eWeek announced a rumor that Apple had a version of Mac OS X code-named Marklar, which ran on Intel x86 processors. The idea behind Marklar was to keep Mac OS X running on an alternative platform should Apple become dissatisfied with the progress of the PowerPC platform.[39] These rumors subsided until late in May 2005, when various media outlets, such as the Wall Street Journal[40] and CNET,[41] announced that Apple would unveil Marklar in the coming months. On June 6, 2005, Steve Jobs confirmed these rumors when he announced in his keynote address at the annual Apple Worldwide Developers Conference that Apple would be making the transition from PowerPC to Intel processors over the following two years, and that Mac OS X would support both platforms during the transition. Jobs also confirmed rumors that Apple had versions of Mac OS X running on Intel processors for most of its developmental life. The last time that Apple switched CPU families—from the Motorola 68K CPU to the IBM/Motorola PowerPC—Apple included a Motorola 68K emulator in the new OS that made almost all 68K software work automatically on the new hardware. Apple had supported the 68K emulator for 11 years, but stopped supporting it during the transition to Intel CPUs. Included in the new OS for the Intel-based Macs is Rosetta, a binary translation layer which enables software compiled for PowerPC Mac OS X to run on Intel Mac OS X machines. Apple dropped support for Classic mode on the new Intel Macs. Third party emulation software such as Mini vMac, Basilisk II and SheepShaver provides support for some early versions of Mac OS. A new version of Xcode and the underlying command-line compilers support building universal binaries that will run on either architecture.[42] PowerPC-only software is supported with Rosetta, though applications may have to be rewritten to run properly on the newer OS X for Intel. Apple initially encouraged developers to produce universal binaries with support for both PowerPC and x86.[43] There is a performance penalty when PowerPC binaries run on Intel Macs through Rosetta. Moreover, some PowerPC software, such as kernel extensions and System Preferences plugins, are not supported on Intel Macs. Some PowerPC applications would not run on Intel OS X at all. Plugins for Safari need to be compiled for the same platform as Safari, so when Safari is running on Intel it requires plug-ins that have been compiled as Intel-only or universal binaries, so PowerPC-only plug-ins will not work.[44] While Intel Macs are able to run PowerPC, x86, and universal binaries, PowerPC Macs support only universal and PowerPC builds. Support for the PowerPC platform was dropped after Mac OS X 10.5. Such cross-platform capability already existed in Mac OS X's lineage; Openstep was ported to many architectures, including x86, and Darwin included support for both PowerPC and x86. Apple stated that Mac OS X would not run on Intel-based personal computers aside from its own, but a hacked version of the OS compatible with conventional x86 hardware was developed by the OSx86 community. On June 8, 2009, Apple announced at its Worldwide Developers Conference that Snow Leopard (version 10.6) would drop support for PowerPC processors and be Intel-only.[45] However, Rosetta is still supported. In Snow Leopard, Rosetta is not installed by default, but it is available on the installation DVD as an installable add-on and is installed automatically via the Internet when first attempting to run a PowerPC-based application. Features When a widget is added to the dashboard, it appears with a ripple effect. One of the major differences between the previous versions of Mac OS and OS X was the addition of the Aqua GUI, a graphical user interface with water-like elements. Every window element, text, graphic, or widget is drawn on-screen using anti-aliasing technology.[46] ColorSync, a technology introduced many years before, was improved and built into the core drawing engine, to provide color matching for printing and multimedia professionals.[47] Also, drop shadows were added around windows and isolated text elements to provide a sense of depth. New interface elements were integrated, including sheets (document modal dialog boxes attached to specific windows) and drawers. Apple has continued to change aspects of the OS X appearance and design, particularly with tweaks to the appearance of windows and the menu bar. One example of a UI behavioral change is that previewed video and audio files no longer have progress bars in column view; instead, they have mouse-over start and stop buttons as of 10.5. The human interface guidelines published by Apple for Mac OS X are followed by many applications, giving them consistent user interface and keyboard shortcuts.[48] In addition, new services for applications are included, which include spelling and grammar checkers, special characters palette, color picker, font chooser and dictionary; these global features are present in every Cocoa application, adding consistency. The graphics system OpenGL composites windows onto the screen to allow hardware-accelerated drawing. This technology, introduced in version 10.2, is called Quartz Extreme, a component of Quartz. Quartz's internal imaging model correlates well with the Portable Document Format (PDF) imaging model, making it easy to output PDF to multiple devices.[47] As a side result, PDF viewing is a built-in feature. In version 10.3, Apple added Exposé, a feature which includes three functions to help accessibility between windows and desktop. Its functions are to instantly display all open windows as thumbnails for easy navigation to different tasks, display all open windows as thumbnails from the current application, and hide all windows to access the desktop.[49] Also, FileVault was introduced, which is an optional encryption of the user's files with Advanced Encryption Standard (AES-128).[50] Features introduced in version 10.4 include Automator, an application designed to create an automatic workflow for different tasks;[51] Dashboard, a full-screen group of small applications called desktop widgets that can be called up and dismissed in one keystroke;[52] and Front Row, a media viewer interface accessed by the Apple Remote.[53] Moreover, the Sync Services were included, which is a system that allows applications to access a centralized extensible database for various elements of user data, including calendar and contact items. The operating system then managed conflicting edits and data consistency.[54] As of version 10.5, all system icons are scalable up to 512×512 pixels, to accommodate various places where they appear in larger size, including for example the Cover Flow view, a three-dimensional graphical user interface included with iTunes, the Finder, and other Apple products for visually skimming through files and digital media libraries via cover artwork.[55] This version includes Spaces, a virtual desktop implementation which enables the user to have more than one desktop and display them in an Exposé-like interface.[56] Mac OS X v10.5 includes an automatic backup technology called Time Machine, which provides the ability to view and restore previous versions of files and application data;[57] and Screen Sharing was built in for the first time.[58] Finder is a file browser allowing quick access to all areas of the computer, which has been modified throughout subsequent releases of Mac OS X.[59][60] Quick Look is part of Mac OS X Leopard's Finder. It allows for dynamic previews of files, including videos and multi-page documents, without opening their parent applications. Spotlight search technology, which is integrated into the Finder since Mac OS X Tiger, allows rapid real-time searches of data files; mail messages; photos; and other information based on item properties (meta data) and/or content.[61][62] Mac OS X makes use of a Dock, which holds file and folder shortcuts as well as minimized windows. Mac OS X Architecture implements a layered framework.[63] The layered framework aids rapid development of applications by providing existing code for common tasks.[64] Versions Mac OS X Version Information Version Codename Date Announced Release Date Most Recent Version Mac OS X Server 1.0 Hera March 16, 1999 1.2v3 (October 27, 2000) Public Beta Kodiak September 13, 2000 10.0 Cheetah March 24, 2001 10.0.4 (June 22, 2001) 10.1 Puma July 18, 2001[65] September 25, 2001 10.1.5 (June 6, 2002) 10.2 Jaguar May 6, 2002[66] August 24, 2002 10.2.8 (October 3, 2003) 10.3 Panther June 23, 2003[67] October 24, 2003 10.3.9 (April 15, 2005) 10.4 Tiger May 4, 2004[68] April 29, 2005 10.4.11 (November 14, 2007) 10.5 Leopard June 26, 2006[69] October 26, 2007 10.5.8 (August 5, 2009) 10.6 Snow Leopard June 9, 2008[70] August 28, 2009 10.6.5 (November 10, 2010) 10.7 Lion October 20, 2010[71] Expected Q2 2011 With the exception of Mac OS X Server 1.0 and the original public beta, Mac OS X versions are named after big cats. Prior to its release, version 10.0 was code named "Cheetah" internally at Apple, and version 10.1 was code named internally as "Puma". After the immense buzz surrounding version 10.2, codenamed "Jaguar", Apple's product marketing began openly using the code names to promote the operating system. 10.3 was marketed as "Panther", 10.4 as "Tiger", and 10.5 as "Leopard". "Snow Leopard" is the name for the current release, version 10.6. "Panther", "Tiger" and "Leopard" are registered as trademarks of Apple, but "Cheetah", "Puma" and "Jaguar" have never been registered. Apple has also registered "Lynx" and "Cougar" as trademarks, though these were allowed to lapse.[72] Computer retailer Tiger Direct sued Apple for its use of the name "Tiger". On May 16, 2005 a US federal court in the Southern District of Florida ruled that Apple's use does not infringe on Tiger Direct's trademark.[73] Public Beta: "Kodiak" Main article: Mac OS X Public Beta Apple released to the public, on September 13, 2000, a "preview" version of Mac OS X (internally codenamed Kodiak) in order to gain feedback from users,[74] which cost $29.95.[75] The "PB" as it was known marked the first public availability of the Aqua interface and Apple made many changes to the UI based on customer feedback. Mac OS X Public Beta expired and ceased to function in Spring 2001.[76] Version 10.0: "Cheetah" Main article: Mac OS X v10.0 On March 24, 2001, Apple released Mac OS X v10.0 (internally codenamed Cheetah).[77] The initial version was slow, incomplete, and had very few applications available at the time of its launch, mostly from independent developers. While many critics suggested that the operating system was not ready for mainstream adoption, they recognized the importance of its initial launch as a base on which to improve. Simply releasing Mac OS X was received by the Macintosh community as a great accomplishment, for attempts to completely overhaul the Mac OS had been underway since 1996, and delayed by countless setbacks. Following some bug fixes, kernel panics became much less frequent. Version 10.1: "Puma" Main article: Mac OS X v10.1 Later that year on September 25, 2001, Mac OS X v10.1 (internally codenamed Puma) was released.[78] It had better performance and provided missing features, such as DVD playback. Apple released 10.1 as a free upgrade CD for 10.0 users, in addition to the US$129 boxed version for people running Mac OS 9. It was discovered that the upgrade CDs were full install CDs that could be used with Mac OS 9 systems by removing a specific file; Apple later re-released the CDs in an actual stripped-down format that did not facilitate installation on such systems.[79] On January 7, 2002, Apple announced that Mac OS X was to be the default operating system for all Macintosh products by the end of that month.[80] Version 10.2: "Jaguar" Main article: Mac OS X v10.2 On August 23, 2002,[81] Apple followed up with Mac OS X v10.2 "Jaguar", the first release to use its code name as part of the branding.[82] It brought great performance enhancements, a sleeker look, and many powerful enhancements (over 150, according to Apple[83] ), including Quartz Extreme for compositing graphics directly on an ATI Radeon or Nvidia GeForce2 MX AGP-based video card with at least 16 MB of VRAM, a system-wide repository for contact information in the new Address Book, and an instant messaging client named iChat.[84] The Happy Mac which had appeared during the Mac OS startup sequence for almost 18 years was replaced with a large grey Apple logo with the introduction of Mac OS X v10.2. Version 10.3: "Panther" Main article: Mac OS X Panther Mac OS X v10.3 "Panther" was released on October 24, 2003. In addition to providing much improved performance, it also incorporated the most extensive update yet to the user interface. Panther included as many or more new features as Jaguar had the year before, including an updated Finder, incorporating a brushed-metal interface, Fast user switching, Exposé (Window manager), FileVault, Safari, iChat AV (which added videoconferencing features to iChat), improved Portable Document Format (PDF) rendering and much greater Microsoft Windows interoperability.[85] Support for some early G3 computers such as "beige" Power Macs and "WallStreet" PowerBooks was discontinued. Version 10.4: "Tiger" Main article: Mac OS X Tiger Mac OS X v10.4 "Tiger" was released on April 29, 2005. Apple stated that Tiger contained more than 150+ new features.[86] As with Panther, certain older machines were no longer supported; Tiger requires a Mac with a built-in FireWire port.[38] Among the new features, Tiger introduced Spotlight, Dashboard, Smart Folders, updated Mail program with Smart Mailboxes, QuickTime 7, Safari 2, Automator, VoiceOver, Core Image and Core Video. The initial release of the Apple TV used a modified version of Tiger with a different graphical interface and fewer applications and services. On January 10, 2006, Apple released the first Intel-based Macs along with the 10.4.4 update to Tiger. This operating system functioned identically on the PowerPC-based Macs and the new Intel-based machines, with the exception of the Intel release dropping support for the Classic environment.[87] Only PowerPC Macs can be booted from retail copies of the Tiger client DVD, but there is a Universal DVD of Tiger Server 10.4.7 (8K1079) that can boot both PowerPC and Intel Macs. Version 10.5: "Leopard" Main article: Mac OS X Leopard Mac OS X v10.5 "Leopard" was released on October 26, 2007. It was called by Apple "the largest update of Mac OS X". It brought more than 300 new features.[88] Leopard supports both PowerPC- and Intel x86-based Macintosh computers; support for the G3 processor was dropped and the G4 processor required a minimum clock rate of 867 MHz, and at least 512 MB of RAM to be installed. The single DVD works for all supported Macs (including 64-bit machines). New features include a new look, an updated Finder, Time Machine, Spaces, Boot Camp pre-installed,[89] full support for 64-bit applications (including graphical applications), new features in Mail and iChat, and a number of new security features. Leopard is an Open Brand UNIX 03 registered product on the Intel platform. It was also the first BSD-based OS to receive UNIX 03 certification.[3][90] Leopard dropped support for the Classic Environment and all Classic applications.[91] It was the final version of Mac OS X to support the PowerPC architecture. Version 10.6: "Snow Leopard" Main article: Mac OS X Snow Leopard Mac OS X v10.6 "Snow Leopard" was released on August 28, 2009. Rather than delivering big changes to the appearance and end user functionality like the previous releases of Mac OS X, Snow Leopard focuses on "under the hood" changes, increasing the performance, efficiency, and stability of the operating system. For most users, the most noticeable changes are: the disk space that the operating system frees up after a clean install compared to Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard, a more responsive Finder rewritten in Cocoa, faster Time Machine backups, more reliable and user friendly disk ejects, a more powerful version of the Preview application, as well as a faster Safari web browser. The rewrite of Finder in Apple's native Cocoa API allows the Finder to take advantage of the new technologies introduced in Snow Leopard. An update of the web browser, Safari 4, includes a boost in JavaScript and HTML performance, which results in faster web browsing. The majority of this performance boost is enabled by the new SquirrelFish JavaScript interpreter, improving the JavaScript rendering performance of Safari by over 50%.[92] The new Top Sites also displays the most frequently visited and/or bookmarked sites in a panorama view, allowing the user to easily access their favorite sites along with a new Cover Flow view for the user's browsing history. Safari 4 is now also more crash resistant, being able to isolate plug-ins which are the main cause of web browser crashes.[93] Mac OS X v10.6 also features Microsoft Exchange Server support for Mail, iCal, and Address Book, new 64-bit technology capable of supporting greater amounts of RAM, an all new QuickTime X with a refreshed user interface and more functionality that used to be only available to QuickTime Pro owners. Back-end platform changes include improved support for multi-core processors through Grand Central Dispatch which attempts to ease the development of applications with multi-core support, and thus improve their CPU utilization. It used to be that developers needed to code their programs in such a way that their software would explicitly take advantage of the multiple cores, which could easily become a tedious and troublesome task, especially in complex software. It also includes advanced GPU performance with OpenCL (a cross platform open standard for GPGPU distinct from CUDA, Dx11 Compute Shader or STREAM) by providing support to offload work normally only destined for a CPU to the graphic card's GPU. This can be especially useful in tasks that can be heavily parallelized. Snow Leopard only supports machines with Intel CPUs, requires at least 1 GB of RAM, and drops default support for applications built for the PowerPC architecture (Rosetta can be installed as an additional component to retain support for PowerPC-only applications).[94] Although released in 2009, Snow Leopard still lacks support for important parts of IPv6; see comparison of IPv6 support in operating systems. Version 10.7: "Lion" Main article: Mac OS X Lion Wikinews has related news: Apple unveils new MacBook Air laptops, iLife '11 software suite Mac OS X v10.7 "Lion" was announced October 20, 2010 at Apple's "Back to the Mac" event. Lion will take elements of Apple's iOS features on the iPad such as multi-touch gestures, full-screen applications and a Mac App Store.[95] New features also include a Launchpad (similar to the home screen of iOS devices) and Mission Control, unifying Exposé, Spaces, Dashboard, and full-screen applications within a single interface.[96] See also Comparison of BSD operating systems Comparison of operating systems List of Mac OS X technologies List of Macintosh software List of operating systems Market share of operating systems References ^ "Apple Developer: Cocoa Overview". Apple Inc. Retrieved April 9, 2010. ^ "Apple Developer: Mac OS X Technology Overview". Apple Inc. Retrieved April 9, 2010. ^ a b c "Mac OS X 10.5 on Intel-based Macintosh computers". The Open Group. Retrieved November 22, 2009. ^ a b "Mac OS X 10.6 on Intel-based Macintosh computers". The Open Group. Retrieved April 7, 2010. ^ "Apple page on UNIX". Apple Inc. 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